CK_5_TH_HG_P231_324.QXD 2/13/06 1:56 PM Page 289 situation is similar to that of a grand jury, which hands up an indictment and turns someone over for trial.) The Senate heard the evidence and voted three times, but each time Johnson’s opponents could not muster enough votes. They were always one vote short. In the end the Senate acquitted Johnson, but his effectiveness in office was over. Southern Governments Radical Reconstruction banned former Confederate officers and officials from holding office again. Who then filled the new Southern legislatures and other government positions? Who Why Northerners who moved South: federal Supported Radical Republican policies government officials, teachers, missionaries Some, to profit economically from Some, volunteers and employees of the Reconstruction Freedmen’s Bureau cartoon of President Johnson Southerners who supported Radical Republican Abolitionists, were against secession, and/or during his impeachment policies remained loyal to the Union during the war Some, to profit economically from Reconstruction Free-born and freed African Americans Participate in their own governance The new governments of the South were Republican, and most government positions were filled by members of three groups: Northerners, Southerners who worked with the Northerners, or freed African Americans. The Northerners, who had often served in the Union army or were working for the Freedmen’s Bureau (see p. 290), moved south to help with Reconstruction. The Southern officials were whites who supported the efforts of Reconstruction. Ex-Confederates dis- paragingly called the Northerners “carpetbaggers” and the Southerners who col- laborated with them “scalawags.” The nickname “carpetbagger” supposedly came from the carpetbags (19th-century suitcases) that Northerners carried with them. Southerners said the Northerners were there to exploit the Southerners and take their money. The term scalawag means “rascal” or “scoundrel.” In many Southern states, freed African Americans also held government positions, which was both symbolic and literal proof that efforts to reconstruct the South were, at least by some appearances, working. However, many white Southerners resent- ed the new leaders and their policies, and some of the new government officials, particularly the carpetbaggers, were corrupt. The turmoil of Reconstruction led to years of political conflict for the South. Freedmen’s Bureau Freed African Americans faced a bleak future. They had no place to live, no education, no money to buy food, and no experience in bargaining for a job or dealing with the law. The only last names they had were the names of their for- mer owners. Many rectified that quickly by taking the names of Americans they admired. Among those were Lincoln, Washington, and Jefferson. In 1865, the Freedmen’s Bureau was established by the Department of War to look after the welfare of freed slaves. Agents of the bureau provided food for for- mer slaves and helped them find housing and employment. The bureau provided History and Geography: American 289 CK_5_TH_HG_P231_324.QXD 2/13/06 1:56 PM Page 291 • provided that (a) the number of representatives for a state in the House of Representatives would be reduced in proportion to the number of citizens who were denied their voting rights by the state; (b) no former Confederate officer could hold office unless Congress pardoned him; (c) debts of the Confederate government would not be repaid; (d) former slave owners could not sue for the loss of their property, that is, slaves 15th Amendment • was the African-American suffrage amendment • was passed and ratified in 1870 • was considered necessary when Southern states continued to deny African-American men the right to vote • stated that “The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.” Black Codes In response to Northern efforts to aid former enslaved African Americans— such as the establishment of the Freedmen’s Bureau and ratification of the 13th Amendment—Southern legislatures passed a series of black codes in 1865 and 1866. These laws were similar to the old slave codes, which limited severely the activities of African Americans, that Southern towns, cities, and legislatures had passed in the 1700s and in the early 1800s. In an attempt to reimpose some of the restrictions of slavery, the black codes typically required that former slaves be indoors by a curfew and have a permit to travel. In addition, a white person had to be present if former slaves wished to meet in a group. New regulations forbade former slaves from serving on juries, voting, owning land, and holding public office. Most troubling were those provi- sions that made it lawful to arrest and fine unemployed African Americans. An employer could pay the fine and then force the unemployed former slave to work in order to repay the fine. This amounted to a new form of servitude. The Ku Klux Klan and “Vigilante Justice” As early as 1866, groups of white Southerners began a campaign of terror against African Americans and their white supporters. Angry whites, many of whom were Confederate veterans returned from the war, organized into secret societies, such as the Knights of the White Camelia and the White League. Perhaps the most notorious, and certainly the largest, was the Ku Klux Klan. Klan members dressed in white robes and masks and rode out under cover of night. Their aim was to keep former slaves and white Republicans from voting or holding public office. The Klan planted and burned crude wooden crosses in front of the homes and churches of people they wanted to frighten. When this failed to scare off African Americans, the Klan beat their victims. The violence escalated until “vigilante justice” took over in the late 1800s; several hundred vic- tims of the Klan were abducted and hung in the South every year. 64 History and Geography: American 291 CK_5_TH_HG_P231_324.QXD 2/13/06 1:56 PM Page 292 II. The Civil War: Causes, Conflicts, Consequences Ida B. Wells-Barnett, an African-American female journalist, mounted a cam- paign in 1892 to bring lynching to the attention of the general public. By 1899, the number of lynchings in the South had dropped to 180 a year. This was down from 235 when Wells-Barnett had published her report in 1895. However, this form of vigilante justice continued in the South for several generations. End of Reconstruction: Compromise of 1877 By the mid-1870s, Americans were tired of Reconstruction. The most promi- nent Radical Republicans had died or been replaced in Congress. Other problems and concerns, such as the economy, increasing immigration, and industrializa- tion, replaced Reconstruction. In addition, business interests wanted relations with the South normalized. There was a desire among Northern businessmen to invest in and develop the resources of the South, which had been difficult while the states were under martial law. By the election of 1876, only three states—Louisiana, Florida, and South Carolina—retained Reconstruction governments. In the election for president that year, the Democrats nominated Samuel J. Tilden of New York. The Republicans chose Rutherford B. Hayes, the governor of Ohio. It appeared that Tilden had won until Republican leaders in Louisiana, Florida, and South Carolina challenged and discarded large numbers of votes cast for Tilden. To end the confusion, Congress established a commission of eight Republicans and seven Democrats that included Supreme Court Justices, sena- tors, and members of the House of Representatives. The commission worked out a compromise that is known as the “Compromise of 1877.” The Democrats sup- ported Hayes in exchange for the following: • the withdrawal of federal troops from the South and the end of Reconstruction • funding for construction of the Texas and Pacific Railroad • the appointment of a Southerner to the president’s cabinet With the Compromise of 1877, Reconstruction was over. The Big Idea Review in Review Below are some ideas for ongoing assessment and review activities. These are Slavery, the Civil War, not meant to constitute a comprehensive list. Teachers may also refer to the and Reconstruction Pearson Learning/Core Knowledge History & Geography series for additional infor- occupied much of the mation and teaching ideas. United States’ attention • Because of the number of people and places named in this section, have stu- and energy in the mid- dents play “Who/What Am I?” or create crossword puzzles to review the materi- 19th century. al. Have students create puzzles with at least 12 clues and then exchange them. Or have students work in teams of two to create five identifications. Then group two teams together and have them take turns asking the opposite team their identifi- cation questions. 292 Grade 5 Handbook.