The North Caucasus in the Second Half of the Sixteenth Century: Imperial Entanglements and Shifting Loyalties by Murat Yasar A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations University of Toronto © Murat Yasar 2011 The North Caucasus in the Second Half of the Sixteenth Century: Imperial Entanglements and Shifting Loyalties Murat Yasar Doctor of Philosophy Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations University of Toronto 2011 Abstract The present dissertation seeks to present and analyze the hitherto poorly understood first encounter between the Ottoman Empire and the Tsardom of Muscovy in the North Caucasus from the Muscovites’ annexation of the nearby Khanate of Astrakhan in 1556 and subsequent penetration into this region, to their expulsion from it by the Ottomans in 1605. The study relies on both Ottoman and Muscovite sources, both documentary and narrative, as well as archival and published. The main archival documentary sources are the Ottoman mühimme defters (registers of orders issued by the Imperial Council [Divan-i Hümayun]) and the Muscovite posol’skie knigi (registers of diplomatic documentation, including ambassadorial reports, diplomatic correspondence, and other documents administered by the Ambassadorial Office [Posol’skii Prikaz]). The main narrative sources are sixteenth-century Ottoman and Muscovite chronicles. On the basis of the Ottoman and Muscovite documentary sources it is possible to determine what Ottoman and Muscovite policies in the North Caucasus were, to what degree they were well- formulated, and how they evolved during the aforementioned time period. It becomes clear that ii Ottoman and Muscovite policies in the Pontic-Caspian steppes and specifically in the North Caucasus had some superficial similarities, but were in essence fundamentally different. Taking into account that it was only after Muscovy’s expansion into the North Caucasus that the Ottomans decided to take an active stand in the north, the dissertation also shows the ways in which Muscovite steppe policy not only affected the political structures on the frontiers but also influenced Ottoman northern policy, and specifically in the North Caucasus. However, this dissertation is not solely a study of an imperial rivalry in a contested frontier zone. The Ottoman and Muscovite involvement brought about changes to the internal dynamics of the polities within the North Caucasus. Lastly, during the first round of this imperial clash, Ottoman and Muscovite presence and sway in the North Caucasus underwent several extreme and unexpected shifts. These shifts and resulting new strategies that the Ottomans and Muscovites had to develop in the North Caucasus played an important role in their future encounters in the northern Black Sea region. iii Acknowledgments First, I would like to thank my supervisor, Victor Ostapchuk. He has been a source of support and encouragement since I came to the University of Toronto. Professor Ostapchuk has guided me and helped me formulate my ideas during the treacherous phases of research and writing. He also generously allowed me to use his copies of Posol’skii Prikaz documents related to my thesis. Without his guidance and intellectual support, this work would have never come to fruition. I am truly indebted to him. Thank you, hocam, for believing in my project and helping me bring all the final threads together. I would like to express my gratitude to my doctoral committee members, Virginia Aksan, Alison Smith, and Maria Subtelny for their invaluable comments on my thesis drafts and for their encouragement and unflagging support. It has been a pleasure to work with the highest caliber of historians at the University of Toronto. I was fortunate to have Brian Boeck as my external appraiser. His approach to writing history and his expertise in Muscovite/Russian history have been an inspiration for my work. I am very grateful for his constructive criticism, feedback, and suggestions. I will keep these in mind in further developing my research. I also would like to thank İsenbike Togan and Hakan Kırımlı. Professor Togan showed me the way and helped me understand the importance of learning languages for historical research when I was an undergraduate student. She has inspired my understanding of history and instilled in me much confidence for many years. Professor Kırımlı encouraged my studies in Muscovite/Russian history and has always supported my academic career. iv Thank you to the University of Toronto and the Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations for generously funding my studies through University of Toronto Fellowships, SGS Travel and Thesis Completion Grants, and various teaching assistantship contracts. I owe special thanks to Anna Sousa and Jennie Jones of the Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations for providing an incredible amount of personal and administrative support to me. Their support, advice, and friendship during my PhD journey have been very instrumental in the successful completion of this work. I also would like to thank the Access & Information supervisors and staff at Robarts Library, especially Perry Hall, Gwen Smardon, Iona Gocool, Neelum Haq, and Debbie Campbell. At the University of Toronto, I was lucky to have great and supportive friends. I cannot acknowledge all of them. However, I should mention Maryna Kravets, Metin Bezikoglu, and Joo-Yup Lee for reading sections of this work and for their valuable feedback. My family has always supported my education. I am deeply grateful for the love and support that they have showed throughout this journey. I would like to extend a very special thanks to Candis Haak for her encouragement in the most desperate days, good humour, and awesome personality. v Table of Contents Introduction…………………………………………………………………. 1 Chapter 1: The Lands, Peoples, Religious Culture, and Events in the North Caucasus in the Second Half of the Sixteenth Century: An Overview………………………………………………………………….. 31 1.1 The Land.......................................................................................... 31 1.2 The People....................................................................................... 35 1.2.1 The Kabardinians.................................................................. 36 1.2.2 The Adyghes (Western Circassians)..................................... 39 1.2.3 The Daghestanis................................................................... 41 1.2.4 The Cossacks....................................................................... 45 1.2.5 The Nogays........................................................................... 47 1.3 Religious Culture in the North Caucasus......................................... 48 1.4 The North Caucasus: An Overview of the Sixteenth Century.......... 51 Chapter 2: The Ottoman Empire and the North Caucasus………….. 70 2.1 The Road to Astrakhan: Towards a Mature Policy in the North…... 80 2.2 The Campaign and its Aftermath: Kabarda Subjugated…………… 95 2.3 Killing Two Birds with One Stone: The Ottoman-Safavid War of 1578-1590………………………………………………………………. 102 2.4 The Porte is in Charge: The Safavid War and North Caucasus…... 111 Chapter 3: Muscovy and the North Caucasus………………………… 142 3.1 “Under His Tsar’s Hand”: Muscovite “Ghost Fortresses” and Muscovite Ways of Defining Loyalties in the North Caucasus………………………………………………………………. 148 3.2 Out of the Ashes, Tsar’s Prestige Born Again: Revival of Muscovite Power in Kabarda…………………………………………157 3.3 Once and For All: The Muscovite Attempts at Dominating Daghestan and the Denouement of the Imperial Rivalry in the North Caucasus…………………………………………………….…. 182 Chapter 4: Ottoman and Muscovite Imperial Policies in the North Caucasus Compared......................................................................... 194 4.1 An overview and comparison of Ottoman Northern Policy and Muscovite Steppe Policy……………………………………………… 196 4.2 Imperial Policies and the North Caucasus: Beginnings of the Rivalry in the Borderlands ……............................................ 221 4.2.1 Reflections on Ottoman Northern Policy in the North Caucasus…………………………………………….… 221 vi 4.2.2 Reflections on Muscovite Steppe Policy in the North Caucasus………………………………………………….. .. 233 Chapter 5: The View from the North Caucasus: A Tale of Five Rulers from the Region……………………………... 243 5.1 Solokh of Kabarda………………………………………………… 245 5.2 Kansavuk and Sibok of the Janey Adyghes………………….... 260 5.3 Urus of the Greater Nogays……………………………………... 264 5.4 Alexander II of the Kakheti Kingdom……………………….…... 272 Conclusion…………………………………………………………..…. 277 Appendix I: Selected Ottoman Documents from the Mühimme Defters..................................................................... 290 Appendix II: Selected Muscovite Documents from the Archives of the Posol’skii Prikaz……………………………….. 303 Chronology…………………………………………………………….. 316 Maps…………………………………………………………………… 320 Glossary……………………………………………………………..… 322 Bibliography……………………………………………………….….. 326 vii List of Appendices Appendix I: Selected Ottoman Documents from the Mühimme Defters………………………………………….. 290 I-A Ottoman version of Selim II’s letter to Ivan IV dated 1570………... 290 I-B Letters and orders from the Porte regarding plans for construction of two fortresses in the North Caucasus………………………... 295 I-C Imperial Letter to the Shamkhal of Daghestan dated 7 Şa‘bān 1002/28 April 1594…………………………………..… 300 Appendix II: Selected Muscovite Documents from the Archives of the Posol’skii