Gendered Continuity and Change in Javanese Pesantren Siti Kholifah, S.Sos, M.Si Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy College of Arts Victoria University December 2014 Abstract The main focus of this study is to examine the role of Muslim feminists in pesantren (Islamic boarding schools) in promoting gender equity. These are important issues because the pesantren is an educational institution within the Islamic community in Java that tends to preserve patriarchal values. This study investigates the strategies of Muslim feminists and obstacles they confront. It explores the endeavours of pesantren leaders to preserve and develop their traditions, particularly related to gender values. Using a feminist perspective through participant observation and qualitative interviews, this research was conducted in three Javanese pesantren: Mu’allimin and Mu’allimaat in Yogyakarta, As- sa’idiyyah 2 Pesantren in Jombang, and Nurul Huda Pesantren in Malang. This study examines how activists within pesantren have sought to develop greater gender awareness. It is argued that activists use ‘soft strategies’ to change gender values, thus avoiding direct confrontation with pesantren traditions. These activists promote contextualisation and reinterpretation of Islamic teaching and endeavour to ‘inject the gender virus’ among santri (pesantren students). This research also shows pesantren still perpetuate and embed patriarchal structures with the kyai (male leader in the pesantren) as a dominant figure. However, religious and cultural change in pesantren is reflected in clothing traditions and bilingual/ multilingual programs, but these changes are mediated by the kyai. This thesis advances several key propositions. First, the patterns of change in developing gender equity are neither linear nor uniform. Muslim feminists have not managed to replace the patriarchial status quo, but they have to compete with other external influences in the form of the PKS (Partai Keadilan Sejahtera/Prosperous Justice Party), which has sought to give the established patriarchy a stronger puritan dimension. However, Muslim feminists have made gender values an issue of contention within pesantren and have sowed the ‘gender virus’. Second, Muslim feminists tend to be identified with Western influence within the discourse of pesantren; however in the dichotomy of Huntington’s (1998) ‘the clash of civilizations’, they have promoted contentious interpretations of Islamic teaching and, just as Islam has been accommodated within Javanese cultural values, they have promoted greater gender equity. Third, identifying themselves with both the i santri and priyayi (Javanese aristrocratic elites) aliran (the variant of the religion of Java), pesantren have accommodated Islamic and Javanese values. The intellectual networking of pesantren continues this accommodation. The pesantren seek to identify with both aliran and seek to strengthen their legitimacy through tracing their kyai's aristocratic and religious lineages. In this respect, the three pesantren differ from Geertz’s (1960) depiction of santri and priyayi as distinct. Finally, following Foucault’s Panopticon concept that based on Jeremy Bentham’s notion (1977), the pesantren structure reflects the gender bias of the Panopticon system that is reflected in stricter rules and regulations for female santri than for male santri. ii Student Declaration I, Siti Kholifah, declare that the PhD thesis entitled “Gendered Continuity and Change in Javanese Pesantren” is no more than 100,000 words in length including quotes and exclusive of table, figures, appendices, bibliographyand footnotes. This thesis contains no material that has been submitted previously, in whole or in part, for the award of any other academic degree or diploma. Except where otherwise indicated, this thesis is my own work. Siti Kholifah 02 December 2014 iii Acknowledgements Praise be to Allah, Lord of the Worlds…many people supported me during my study at Victoria University, and I cannot express enough gratitude to them. This learning experience is a part of the long process of life that includes many contributions from a number of people. I understand I would not be able to reach this experience without any kind of help from them in various ways. My parents are on the top level of deserving my appreciation. They provide me with huge love and spiritual resilience that makes me tough in continuing the long journey. My soulmate and sisters are my energy to work hard in finishing my study with their love and attention. Dr Richard Chauvel, who gave me unlimited guidance, not only in finishing the thesis but also during my time at Victoria University, deserves the highest honour. He also deserves my special thanks for his tremendous job of making my writing style more “Australian”. In addition, I also owe Associate Professor Katie Hughes for her attention and her great comments and thoughts on my work. Many thanks also to Angela Rojter and Petre Santry, for inspiration and scholarly assistance. I would like to thank Dr Diane Brown who has edited this thesis. My friends and colleagues at Victoria University, with whom I have shared my ups and downs, provide me with a comfortable social and intellectual zone, and they also deserve to be acknowledged. I also want to express my sincere thanks to my lecturers in Airlangga University Surabaya, my senior colleague in IAIN Sunan Ampel Surabaya, my colleagues in Brawijaya University Malang, particularly in the Political and Social Science Faculty, and all the people who encourage and provide a spirit that allows me to dream. I also thank all of the kyai, nyai, ustadz/ustadzah, santri and people in the three pesantren: Mu’allimin and Mu’allimaat in Yogyakarta, As-sa’idiyyah 2 Pesantren in Jombang andNurul Huda Pesantren in Malang. My study at Victoria University would not have happened without the scholarship from the Higher Educational Department of the Indonesian Government and Brawijaya University. Finally, to people all over the world, particularly women, who work hard to survive on this patriarchal planet, and to those who struggle for developing equality and tranquility among all human beings, I devote this work. iv Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................... i Student Declaration .......................................................................................... iii Acknowledgements .......................................................................................... iv Table of Contents .............................................................................................. v List of Tables .................................................................................................... ix List of Figures .................................................................................................... x Glossary and Abbreviations .......................................................................... xiii Chapter 1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background to the study ......................................................................... 1 1.2 Questions of the research ....................................................................... 9 1.3 Aims of the research ............................................................................... 9 1.4 Contribution to knowledge ..................................................................... 10 1.5 Significance .......................................................................................... 11 1.6 Organisation of the study ...................................................................... 12 Chapter 2 Literature Review............................................................................ 14 2.1 Gender and education ........................................................................... 14 2.2 Patriarchy: controlling and maintaning tradition ..................................... 19 2.3 Power, knowledge and feminism ........................................................... 23 2.4 The Muslim feminist movement: developing praxis ............................... 28 2.5 Waves of Indonesian feminism ............................................................. 31 2.6 Pesantren, women’s education and progressive Muslim feminism ........ 33 2.7 Pesantren from Foucault’s perspective ................................................. 36 Chapter 3 Methodology ................................................................................... 40 3.1 Feminist research ................................................................................. 40 3.2 Rationale for qualitative research .......................................................... 41 v 3.3 In-depth interviewing ............................................................................. 42 3.4 Other methods of data collection ........................................................... 43 3.5 Location of research.............................................................................. 44 3.6 Researcher–pesantren relationship ....................................................... 48 3.7 Interviewee selection ............................................................................. 54 3.8 Interview processes .............................................................................. 56 3.9 Interview issues ...................................................................................