Women and Korean Literature Helen Koh In South Korea today, women writers are as Confucian cosmology, the split between the domes- numerous as their male counterparts, frequently tic or inner sphere and the public or outer sphere winning top literary prizes and publishing best sell- was personified by the separation of women and ers. Several women are well-known public figures men into distinct orders.Women were restricted to widely sought for interviews, lectures, and opinion the inner sanctum of domestic life and family care, pieces. Professional women writers appeared in while men properly occupied the outer realm that Korea at the turn of the century, but only since the governed the life of the family – politics, ethics, and late 1960s have they noticeably grown in visibility the ownership of property. Ideally, these two realms and numbers. In fact, the number of women writing were considered complementary and were not nec- professionally has increased so sharply that by the essarily hierarchical, but in fact women’s exclusion 1990s conservative male literary critics and writers from the outer realm meant the denial of formal were complaining that Korean literature was inun- education, legal rights, and economic means. The dated with young women eager to publish.This com- Chosòn Period (1392-1910) was founded on plaint reflects a changing literary landscape in which Confucian principles. Confucianism places heavy women, who had been marginalized by the literary emphasis on learning as a means of improving one- establishment as in other public forums, became self, but education meant different things for men highly active. The right to publish and engage in and women. For the elite class of men (yangban) social criticism are essential pillars of the public virtue was obtained in book learning based on a sphere and in Korea, as elsewhere, had long been the Chinese-based classical education, which was neces- exclusive realm of male writers, poets and critics.To sary for self-cultivation and political participation. understand the significance of women being able to The purpose of education for yangban women was to fully participate in Korean literature, we must first prepare them for the domestic sphere, providers of understand what it means for women to write. the family’s physical and psychic needs. Upper-class women were taught han’gù l, the phonetic Korean script, since it was believed that women could ben- The Possibility of Writing for Women efit from reading simple rule books designed to con- in Chosòn Korea vey complicated ideas. Women were taught proper conduct, speech, appearance and chastity, obedi- Korean women had long been excluded from ence, and duty were emphasized as the supreme public participation, and similar to Europe, were female virtues. Reading biographies of virtuous considered domestic representatives of the family women was also encouraged in the hopes that these and home. Unlike Western Europe, however, the self-sacrificing models would be emulated. basis for the oppositional relationship between pub- Even if a woman were educated, in an environ- lic and private did not originate in the bourgeois ment that discouraged them from expressing their ethos, but in Confucian ethics. According to opinions the possibilities for women to write were 35 restricted. It was common, however, for women to as one of the foremost female poets in Chosòn Korea circulate their poetry and written observations to and as an exceptional Taoist poet as well.Along with other women.Thousands of private poems, kyubang her famous brother Hò Kyun, who is known to have kasa (lyrical verse of the inner room), written by written the first vernacular novel in Korea, women of privilege have been preserved. They Nansòrhòn was tutored along with her brother by a record advice and thoughts on domestic life handed famous scholar and poet,Yi Tal.After her marriage, down to daughters and other female members of she wrote many kyubang kasa lamenting her solitary her family.1 There also existed a class of public existence as a wife and mother. But Nansòrhòn also women known as kisaeng (professional courtesans) wrote poems that explore Taoist themes of immor- who were often literate. Considered low in the tality and fantastic journeys through nature in a col- social strata, they were trained to entertain noble- lection called Wandering Immortals.4 Upon man and poetry composition was part of their pro- Nansòrhòn’s death at the age of 26, her famous fessional training in the arts. Famous kisaeng such as brother compiled a volume of her poetry that had the celebrated Hwang Chini (16th century) were been collected by family members, ensuring the known for their skillful writing of shijo (3-line survival of her written legacy. verse).2 Furthermore, the work of talented moth- In the 18th century, Lady Hyegyòng (1735- ers, sisters and wives to famous men, such as Shin 1815) recorded the tragic events of the royal family Saimdang, Hò Nansòrhòn and Lady Hyegyòng have in four separate memoirs.5 Born to an illustrious been preserved by their male kin and serve as shin- royal minister, Lady Hyegyòng was chosen as con- ing examples of women’s creative ability in an age sort to Crown Prince Sado. Unfortunately the when few women received an education. Crown Prince was plagued by mental illness and Shin Saimdang (1504-1541) was and continues killed by the order of his own father, King Yòngjo, to be celebrated in South Korea as an exemplary who ordered his son sealed in a rice chest until he woman of virtue – ideal daughter, daughter-in-law, expired. After the death of her husband, Hyegyòng mother, wife and homemaker.3 Her fame is contin- was left powerless as Sado’s disgraced widow. Yet gent on having been mother to an illustrious she struggled to ensure that her eldest son, the new Confucian scholar,Yi I (known as Yulgok), and her heir to the throne, would survive court intrigue female virtues were thought to have nurtured his seeking to prevent him from becoming king.Despite scholarly success. More tangible than her maternal numerous hardships, Hyegyòng lived to see her son attributes for us today are the poetry and paintings become King Chòngjo and her grandson also ascend she left behind. Saimdang was highly educated and the throne. Her memoirs offer a fascinating account wrote shijo poetry in both han’gù l and classical of court life in the 18th century and record the Chinese, which few women had the opportunity to intrigue and turmoil that plagued her natal and mar- learn. Her exquisite paintings of plants, insects and ital families. By reading them, we are afforded a pets precede the famous nature paintings by glimpse into the mind of a woman who felt that it Japanese court ladies of the 17th century by a decade. was important to record her own version of state, Even today her legacy is preserved in a shrine and familial and personal events. Since women’s writing ceremony in which Saimdang is honored as a at this time focused on the domestic sphere, paragon of motherhood and for her skill in poetry Hyegyòng’s memoirs are unique as a woman’s and painting. Another talented 16th century noble- account of court power struggles. Furthermore, her woman, Hò Nansòrhòn (1563-1589), is recognized first-person narrative defies the standard convention 36 HELEN KOH of biographies, histories and memorials at the time, Her education alone made her unique since over which were written for the purpose of transmitting 90% of Korean women were illiterate. The emer- Confucian moral principles through carefully pre- gence of the New Woman was made possible by the scribed themes while excising personal details. Lady work of early male reformers who considered the Hyegyòng clearly meant her memoirs to be a sup- advancement of women coequal with moderniza- plement to the official court records which she felt tion. In the last decades of the 19th century, nation- misrepresented the tragic events she had lived alist reformers argued that the elevation of women’s through. Each memoir was written with a purpose, status was absolutely necessary if Korea was to be either as an injunction to her maternal family or counted as one of the civilized nations of the world addressed to her son and grandson after they and, thus more importantly, earn the right to ascended the throne, respectively, in order to clear national sovereignty. To prove to the imperialist what she believed to be falsehoods in the official Western powers that Korea was a modern nation, records. Through her memoirs, Lady Hyegyòng reformers denounced Confucian patriarchy and transmitted her personal memory to recompose his- advocated women’s education and rights. The tory and used her writing to inform public history. nationalists’ support for the elevation of women’s status shifted the paradigm from the chaste, obe- dient woman to the educated woman who was Women in the Public Sphere: better able to serve her nation as a wise mother The New Woman and good wife. At the beginning of the 20th century, the phe- By the end of the 19th century, the Chosòn nomenon of the New Woman took hold of the pub- Period had proven itself unable to respond to the lic imagination and she appeared the subject of nov- need for reform and modernization being forced els, short stories and movies.6 In concrete terms the upon East Asian countries by Western economic and New Woman was usually a female student, teacher military demands. The end of the Confucian social or writer, a graduate of one of the new girls’ schools and political order was superceded by early mod- that had been established by Christian missionaries ernization, called the New Age.