II. The foundations of musical comedy Goldoni began his activity as a librettist at an early age in 1730, first adapting existing texts for new musical settings, as for example Griselda, from a text by Apostolo Zeno (1668–1750), for Antonio Vivaldi (1678– 1741). Goldoni then authored texts for short comic intermezzi, while his firstdramma giocoso (La scuola moderna) was written in 1748, ten years after Momolo cortesan, the comedy that, according to the author himself, marked the first steps of his theatrical reform. It is significant to note that before Goldoni, the presence and popularity of the dramma giocoso in Venice are difficult to trace. Surviving documents give word of very few titles, the earliest of these being from 1744: La Libertà Nociva and L’ambizione delusa, neither of which have survived. Both were by Rinaldo di Capua with libretti written or readapted by Giovanni Barlocci, and both premiered at the S. Cassiano theatre, which, taking example from the already established S. Samuele and S. Moisè, began favoring comic opera in its programming given the growing popularity of this art. These remain, however, sporadic titles among a myriad of other, more prominent, musical genres: drammi seri, drammi berneschi, drammi eroi-comici, farces, divertimenti, and commedie per musica are just some of the many forms authors were experimenting with. Goldoni too, before La scuola moderna of 1748, essayed all of them without ascribing preference to any one genre over the others. After La scuola moderna, however, he would turn his attention almost exclusively to this newest form, the dramma giocoso per musica, and following his abun- dant production of these texts, examples surface throughout Europe in the work of subsequent generations, all the way to the Viennese school. These are the libretti Goldoni began writing only as a mature play- wright, in other words as an established author with very clear ideas about his own artistic criteria and his agenda for the future of comic theatre. These are the libretti that went on to have a lasting impact on the history of opera. 19 Pervinca Rista - 9783034335638 Downloaded from PubFactory at 09/25/2021 09:58:03AM via free access i. The limits of opera seria In the dedication of his comedy Terenzio (1754), the Arcadian Polis- seno Fegejo bows to the greatest man of modern theatre, Pietro Antonio Domenico Trapassi, better known as Metastasio (1698–1782): In tutti i teatri d’Europa non si rappresentano che i Drammi vostri. Si replicano nel teatro medesimo le dodici, le venti volte. Non vi è compositore di Musica, che non le abbia sperimentate. Non vi è casa, non vi è persona, che non ne sia provve- duta. Sono numerosissime le edizioni, e fortunati coloro che le hanno stampate. I Comici ancora se le sono appropriate per molto tempo, e con profitto notabile le hanno senza musica rappresentate. Da moltissime genti si sanno per la maggior parte a memoria, e pure si gustano sempre, piacciono ogni ora di più, e qualunque Dramma espongasi sulle scene, ha sempre un massimo disavvantaggio, se non è della felicissima penna del Metastasio.19 Fegejo, the ‘pen name’ of none other than our Carlo Goldoni, joined the Accademia degli Arcadi (founded in Rome in 1690 with ‘colonies’ throughout Italy) as Metastasio was fast becoming one of the greatest exponents of its second generation. To judge from his works, however, Goldoni seems to have appended his Arcadian name to comedies and libretti more as a stamp of prestige or an act of due homage than as a seal of fidelity to Arcadian poetic principle; the social critique and quo- tidian reality rendered so vividly in Goldoni’s comedies and in many libretti could not be more distant from the philo-Classical and bucolic hues of Arcadian, and Metastasian, theatre. Goldoni’s Arcadian affiliation appears even more rhetorical as we recall that comedy and comic opera, while first relegated to the 19 Carlo Goldoni, Terenzio, Forward. In all the theatres of Europe we find none but your plays. They are given in the same theatre twelve, even twenty times. There is no composer of Music that has not tried them. There is no home, no person that does not possess them. Numerous are the editions, and lucky are those who have printed them. The actors too have made them their own, and with notable suc- cess have staged them without music. Many people know most of them by heart, and yet they are always enjoyed, they become ever more pleasing, and whatever Dramma be presented on the stage, it always suffers major disadvantage, if it does not spring from the felicitous pen of Metastasio. 20 Pervinca Rista - 9783034335638 Downloaded from PubFactory at 09/25/2021 09:58:03AM via free access accompaniment of tragic plays or opera seria, began to take form as independent genres following their rejection by the Arcadian reform of Apostolo Zeno (1668–1750), consolidated by his pupil Metastasio. These poets endeavored to return opera seria to its ancient prestige and simplicity largely by purging it of all comic elements. Didone abban- donata (1724), Alessandro nell’Indie (1729), L’Olimpiade (1733), and La Clemenza di Tito (1734), but few in a long list of renowned titles, immediately testify how Arcadian, or better Metastasian opera (Trapas- si’s texts alone were the uncontested models of the melodramma serio), drew plots exclusively from ancient history and Classical mythology, an approach later replicated in the French tragédie lyrique (though for political rather than cultural reasons, as pagan gods became allegorical representatives of the reigning monarch and his court). Seeking majesty rather than intrigue, Metastasian opera invested in arias at the expense of plot development, and was- much like Goldoni’s earliest attempts- made up entirely of these solo pieces in alternation with versi sciolti, that is free recitative unbound by rhyme and meter, impositions that could corrupt their ‘natural’ quality. A central charac- teristic of this type of theatre is the da capo aria, which repeats opening text and music at its end to create a symmetrical structure, a form in other words very respectful of the then dominant neoclassical aesthetic of equilibrium and proportion. Analysis of musical scores written on Goldoni’s early drammi giocosi uncovers an initially substantial use of this traditional form, in alternation with recitative and little else- a surprisingly common- place approach, but obviously expected from composers. Mozart’s later operas, for that matter, use these structures as well. The point of dis- tinction comes in the ever-decreasing proportion of traditional forms in Goldoni’s more developed drammi giocosi and in later Mozart operas, in which ensembles, large and small, take over what was once solo recit- ative, and new, flexible, musical structures banish the stasis of tradi- tional arias. The sparse use of da capo forms by the end of the 18th cen- tury is proof that the very characteristics that made this musical form so desirable from an Arcadian perspective made it a hindrance for Goldoni and his successors. Goldoni, as a realist author, patiently chiseled out a more psychologically attuned theatre both in prose and in song, and the circular nature of the da capo form is not easily reconciled with 21 Pervinca Rista - 9783034335638 Downloaded from PubFactory at 09/25/2021 09:58:03AM via free access plot development or emotional change. Clearly, the investment of many new authors in comic rather than melodramatic works in the mid- 18th century was not only fueled by popular interest, but also and especially by critical instinct. Goldoni’s own output reflects with perfect clarity the shift from an initial effort to emulate tragic opera to an entirely opposite, personal- ized aesthetic and a search for new horizons. As any respectable student of law and the ancient authors, he commenced his theatrical career with high hopes of establishing himself as a tragedian of the purest Classical brand. His first texts were tragic operas, and his theatrical debut, the ill-fated Amalasunta, was written ‘according to all the laws of Aristotle and Horace,’ “per la quale,” Goldoni writes, “avea spogliato bastante- mente la Didone e l’Issipile di Metastasio.”20 Yet despite having ‘bor- rowed’ from the most prestigious sources on that occasion, Goldoni’s aristocratic advisors (the Milanese Count Prata and his circle) saw a text beyond repair- one that violated too many good principles of tragic theatre. For Amalasunta it was a death sentence, and our author, many years later, would describe the scene in vivid tones: “Non potea più con- tenermi, mi levai con un movimento involontario, violento, gli chiesi scusa, lo ringraziai de’ suoi amichevoli avvertimenti, e conclusi dicendo che, scandalizzato dalla regole del Dramma, facea proponimento di non comporne mai più.”21 His tragedy traveled from the hands of his Milan- ese readers to the fireplace of Goldoni’s lodging in town, a sign that his calling lay elsewhere. The concurrent decline of opera seria was gradual and by no means uniform, but already detected early in the century. Metastasio contin- ued to produce libretti until 1740, yet Il Teatro alla Moda, an exquisite satire of opera seria by the Venetian Benedetto Marcello (1686–1739), was already in print by 1720. Marcello’s commentary is a prime wit- ness to the incompatibility of this dominant theatre with any measure 20 Carlo Goldoni, Memorie Italiane (Prefazioni ai Diciassette Tomi delle Commedie edite a Venezia da G.B. Pasquali [1761–1778]), tomo X. (…) for which I had suf- ficiently robbed Dido and Issipile by Metastasio. 21 ibid., tomo XI. I could no longer restrain myself, I stood with an involutary, vio- lent motion, apologized, thanked him for his friendly warnings, and concluded by saying that, scandalized by the rules of Opera, I resolved never to write any again.