69544_DHI_A_001-194.qxd 10/12/04 3:56 PM Page 84 ANTICOLONIALISM Das, Manmath N. The Political Philosophy of Jawaharlal Nehru. neocolonialism), in which the countries of Latin America were New York: John Day, 1961. still subject to foreign economic control—this time largely by Davidson, Basil. Can Africa Survive? Boston: Little, Brown, 1974. the British. During the third period, corresponding to the —. Which Way Africa? The Search for a New Society. twentieth century, this economic dependency shifted from Baltimore: Penguin, 1964. the British to the United States, and anticolonial responses Davis, Horace B. Toward a Marxist Theory of Nationalism. New increasingly assumed anti-imperialistic characteristics. The York: Monthly Review Press, 1978. twenty-first century arguably introduced a fourth period of Fairchild, Halford H. “Frantz Fanon’s The Wretched of the Earth neocolonialism, in which Latin America has become subject in Contemporary Perspective.” Journal of Black Studies 25, to control through the maquiladora system to transnational no. 2 (December 1994): 191–199. capital not necessarily rooted in one country and in which the Fanon, Frantz. The Wretched of the Earth. New York: Grove Press, export commodity is labor rather than raw materials. 1968. Gopal, Sarvepalli, ed. Jawaharlal Nehru: An Anthology. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1980. Independence Han, Suyin. The Morning Deluge: Mao Tsetung and the Chinese The Latin American movement most closely associated with Revolution, 1893–1954. Boston: Little, Brown, 1972. anticolonialism corresponds to the period at the beginning of Haq, Mahbub ul-. The Poverty Curtain. New York: Columbia the nineteenth century during which most of the region gained University Press, 1976. its political independence from European colonial powers. Hargreaves, John D. Decolonization in Africa. 2nd ed. London This “postcolonial era began before many territories became and New York: Longman, 1996. colonial,” Robert Young notes, and “before some European Harrison, Lawrence E., and Samuel P. Huntington. Culture Mat- imperial powers, such as Germany and Italy, had even become ters: How Values Shape Human Progress. New York: Basic nations themselves” (p. 193). As in the United States, inde- Books, 2000. Kohn, Hans, and Wallace Sokolsky. African Nationalism in the pendence represented a shift of economic wealth and political Twentieth Century. Princeton, N. J.: Van Nostrand, 1965. power from a colonial elite to a domestic elite. In Latin Amer- Jinadu, L. Adele. “Some Aspects of the Political Philosophy of ica, this was expressed as a struggle between peninsulares (those Frantz Fanon.” African Studies Review 16, no. 2 (September born on the Iberian peninsula, i.e., Spain and Portugal) and 1973): 255–289. creoles (those born in the New World). Independence did not Jussawalla, Feroza. “The Language of Struggle.” Transition 54 result in any corresponding shift in social relations, nor did it (1991): 142–154. result in the abolition of slavery or more rights for women. In Maloba, W. O. “Decolonization: A Theoretical Perspective.” In fact, without the paternalistic protection of the European Decolonization and Independence in Kenya, edited by B. A. crowns the position of peasants and Indians actually worsened. Ogot and W. R. Ochieng. London: J. Currey; Athens: Ohio University Press; Nairobi, Kenya: East African Educational The 1780 Tupac Amaru uprising in the South American Publishers, 1995. Andes is one of the largest, earliest, and most significant anti- Memmi, Albert. The Colonizer and the Colonized. 2nd ed. Boston: colonial movements in the history of Latin America. The leader Beacon, 1991. of this uprising, José Gabriel Condorcanqui (d. 1781), a de- Ngugi wa Thiong’o. Decolonising the Mind: The Politics of Lan- scendant of the Incas, first attempted to petition for the rights guage in African Literature. London: J. Currey, 1986. of his people through legal channels. When legal attempts —. “The Language of Struggle.” Interview with Feroza Jus- failed, he took the name of the last Inca ruler (Tupac Amaru) sawalla. Transition, no 54 (fall 1991): 142–154. and led an uprising that quickly spread throughout the south- —. Moving the Centre: The Struggle for Cultural Freedoms. ern Andes. The insurgents sacked Spanish haciendas and obra- London: J. Currey, 1993. jes (textile mills), driven by messianic dreams of a renewed Inca Soekarno, Achmed. Nationalism, Islam and Marxism. Translated empire that would free the indigenous peoples from hunger, by Karel H. Warouw and Peter D. Weldon. Ithaca, N. Y.: injustice, oppression, and exploitation. The Spanish captured Cornell University, Modern Indonesia Project, 1970. Tupac Amaru and other leaders of the uprising six months W. O. Maloba later and executed them in Cuzco, the former capital of the Inca empire. This did not end the rebellion but shifted its fo- cus south to Bolivia, where under the leadership of Aymara LATIN AMERICA people it entered a more radical, violent, and explicitly anti- Over the past five hundred years, Latin America has experi- colonial phase. In this phase, the insurgents captured and held enced three and possibly four periods of colonization, all of the city of La Paz for several months and threatened the sil- which gave rise to anticolonial movements. The first period ver mines at Potosí—a direct challenge to Spanish wealth and symbolically began with Christopher Columbus’s arrival in the power. The Spanish finally captured and executed the leaders Americas on 12 October 1492, launching three centuries of and the uprising eventually collapsed. This revolt has some- Spanish, Portuguese, and British colonial control over the times been seen as a forward-looking antecedent to the suc- hemisphere, with the French, Dutch, Danish, and other cessful creole independence movements that came forty years European powers competing for slices of the action in the later and sometimes as a reactionary messianic movement that Caribbean. In most of Latin America, this period came to an sought to return to the time of the Inca empire. Sinclair Thom- end with the wars of independence from about 1810 to 1825. son positions these uprisings in the context of local struggles Political independence ushered in a second period (known as against abusive colonial practices and for self-determination 84 New Dictionary of the History of Ideas 69544_DHI_A_001-194.qxd 10/12/04 3:56 PM Page 85 ANTICOLONIALISM Christopher Columbus coming ashore at San Salvador. Columbus’s arrival in the New World in 1492 gave rise to the first period of colonization of Latin America. Spain, Portugal, and Britain proceeded to control the region, which didn’t achieve independence un- til the early nineteenth century. © BETTMANN/CORBIS and equality. Although the uprising ultimately failed, it reveals leadership of Toussaint L’Ouverture (1743–1803), slaves took a widening gap between the colonial elites and the subaltern advantage of the opportunity to revolt and destroyed the old masses, as well as a refusal of indigenous peoples to passively society. The result was perhaps one of the few true social rev- accept their marginalized role in society. olutions the world has ever seen, in which members of a mass movement completely obliterated the ancien régime and The Haitian slave revolt provides another stark contrast to claimed power for itself. By the time Jean-Jacques Dessalines the creole independence movements and in essence under- declared Haitian independence in 1804, the sugar economy scores the lack of a compelling anticolonial discourse in those had disappeared, having been displaced by subsistence agri- events. Haiti was a French colony, and its production of sugar, culture. The example of a black slave republic sent a terrify- cotton, and indigo made it one of the most important colonies ing chill through creole elites, which had begun to agitate for in the world. Soaring sugar profits for French planters in the independence elsewhere in Latin America. The only other in- eighteenth century led to a dramatic increase in the number dependent country in the hemisphere, the United States, re- of African slaves they imported to work the plantations. By fused to recognize the Haitian government. The dangers the end of the century, about 80 percent of the Haitian peo- exemplified by the first successful anticolonial movement in ple were overworked and underfed slaves. Nevertheless, Hait- Latin America put the brakes on other independence move- ian independence movements began in 1789 not as a slave ments, delaying their completion by perhaps a generation. revolt but from the small elite class of planters, who had been influenced by the French Revolution’s rhetoric of “liberty, Neocolonialism equality, fraternity.” For the planters, liberty meant home By the 1820s, most of Latin America had gained political in- rule and freedom from French tariff structures. The whites dependence from its colonial masters. With Iberian mercantile armed the slaves to fight the French, but instead, under the restrictions gone, northern European (and particularly British) New Dictionary of the History of Ideas 85 69544_DHI_A_001-194.qxd 10/12/04 3:56 PM Page 86 ANTICOLONIALISM capital flooded the region. As critics have noted, a legacy of col- worked in the United States as a journalist. He was killed in onization was a blocking of moves toward industrialization, battle on 19 May 1895, when he returned to the island to join which would have represented little gain for colonial powers. the anticolonial