Centre of Excellence AGROPHYSICS for Applied Physics in Sustainable Agriculture Handling of Apple transport techniques and efficiency vibration, damage and bruising texture, firmness and quality Bohdan Dobrzañski, jr. Jacek Rabcewicz Rafa³ Rybczyñski B. Dobrzañski Institute of Agrophysics Polish Academy of Sciences Centre of Excellence AGROPHYSICS for Applied Physics in Sustainable Agriculture Handling of Apple transport techniques and efficiency vibration, damage and bruising texture, firmness and quality Bohdan Dobrzañski, jr. Jacek Rabcewicz Rafa³ Rybczyñski B. Dobrzañski Institute of Agrophysics Polish Academy of Sciences PUBLISHED BY: B. DOBRZAŃSKI INSTITUTE OF AGROPHYSICS OF POLISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ACTIVITIES OF WP9 IN THE CENTRE OF EXCELLENCE AGROPHYSICS CONTRACT NO: QLAM-2001-00428 CENTRE OF EXCELLENCE FOR APPLIED PHYSICS IN SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE WITH THE th ACRONYM AGROPHYSICS IS FOUNDED UNDER 5 EU FRAMEWORK FOR RESEARCH, TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT AND DEMONSTRATION ACTIVITIES GENERAL SUPERVISOR OF THE CENTRE: PROF. DR. RYSZARD T. WALCZAK, MEMBER OF POLISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES PROJECT COORDINATOR: DR. ENG. ANDRZEJ STĘPNIEWSKI WP9: PHYSICAL METHODS OF EVALUATION OF FRUIT AND VEGETABLE QUALITY LEADER OF WP9: PROF. DR. ENG. BOHDAN DOBRZAŃSKI, JR. REVIEWED BY PROF. DR. ENG. JÓZEF KOWALCZUK TRANSLATED (EXCEPT CHAPTERS: 1, 2, 6-9) BY M.SC. TOMASZ BYLICA THE RESULTS OF STUDY PRESENTED IN THE MONOGRAPH ARE SUPPORTED BY: THE STATE COMMITTEE FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH UNDER GRANT NO. 5 P06F 012 19 AND ORDERED PROJECT NO. PBZ-51-02 RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF POMOLOGY AND FLORICULTURE B. DOBRZAŃSKI INSTITUTE OF AGROPHYSICS OF POLISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ©Copyright by BOHDAN DOBRZAŃSKI INSTITUTE OF AGROPHYSICS OF POLISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES LUBLIN 2006 ISBN 83-89969-55-6 ST 1 EDITION - ISBN 83-89969-55-6 (IN ENGLISH) 180 COPIES, PRINTED SHEETS (16.8) PRINTED ON ACID-FREE PAPER IN POLAND BY: ALF-GRAF, UL. KOŚCIUSZKI 4, 20-006 LUBLIN COVER DESIGN, PHOTOSET BY: BOHDAN DOBRZAŃSKI, III MONOCHROME PAGES PHOTOSET BY: DR WANDA WOŹNIAK PHOTOSET DEVELOPING IN LUBLIN, POLAND BY: DZIENNIK WSCHODNI CONTENTS PREFACE 9 INTRODUCTION 13 CHAPTER 1 APPLE 17 1.1. BOTANICAL ORIGINS 17 1.2. SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION 18 1.3. APPLE CULTIVARS 18 1.4. QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS 19 1.4.1. SKIN COLOR 19 1.4.2. BLEMISH 19 1.4.3. TEXTURE 20 1.4.4. FLAVOR 20 1.5. HEALTH BENEFITS 20 1.6. CULTURAL ASPECTS 20 1.7. PRODUCTION AND USES 22 1.7.1. JUICE PRODUCTION 29 1.7.1.1. CHINA APPLE JUICE PRODUCTION 30 1.7.1.2. U.S. APPLE JUICE PRODUCTION 30 1.7.1.3. POLAND APPLE JUICE PRODUCTION 31 1.7.1.4. GERMANY APPLE JUICE PRODUCTION 31 1.7.1.5. ARGENTINA APPLE JUICE PRODUCTION 32 1.7.2. WORLD TRADE IN APPLE JUICE 32 CHAPTER 2 HARVESTING AND HANDLING APPLES 33 2.1. HARVESTING, PACKAGING AND TRANSPORTATION 33 2.2. HARVEST MATURITY 34 2.2.1. APPLE MATURITY INDICES 35 2.2.2. FRUIT FIRMNESS 36 2.2.3. DAYS AFTER FULL BLOOM (DAFB) 36 2.2.4. PERCENT PERCENT SOLUBLE SOLIDS (OR SUGAR LEVELS) 38 2.2.5. ACIDITY 39 2.2.6. STARCH LEVELS 39 2.2.7. SEED COLOR AND FRUIT COLOR 40 2.2.8. FRUIT TEXTURE 41 2.3. PREPARING THE ORCHARD FOR HARVEST 41 2.3.1. BASKET VERSUS BAG 41 2.3.2. LADDERS 42 2.3.3. TRAINING PICKERS 42 4 HANDLING OF APPLE 2.3.3.1. PROPER DRESS 43 2.3.3.2. HOW TO PICK 43 2.3.3.4. SORTING IN THE ORCHARD 44 2.3.3.5. PICKING CREW 44 2.3.3.6. PIECEWORK 45 2.4. MECHANICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS 45 2.4.1. DISEASES 46 2.5. BRUISING 46 2.5.1. BRUISING IN FRUIT 46 2.5.2. INSPECTION OF FRUIT FOR BRUISING 50 2.5.3. BRUISING ON THE TREE 50 2.6. FROZEN APPLES 51 2.7. PRUNING TO FACILITATE HARVEST 51 2.8. STORAGE 52 2.8.1. GRADE SIZE AND PACKING 52 2.8.2. COOLING CONDITIONS 53 2.8.3. OPTIMUM STORAGE CONDITIONS 54 2.8.4. CA AND APPLE VARIETIES 59 CHAPTER 3 TRANSPORT VEHICLES IN HANDLING APPLES 61 3.1. CHARACTERIZATION OF TRANSPORT TECHNIQUES AND VEHICLES USED IN ORCHARD 61 3.1.1. TRACTOR 61 3.1.2. TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION OF TRAILERS AND FORKLIFTS 61 3.1.3. FRONT AND REAR FORKLIFTS 62 3.1.4. SELF-UNLOADING TRAILER FOR ORCHARD USE 62 3.1.5. PYRO-S SELF LOADING/UNLOADING TRAILER 63 3.1.6. AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSAL TRAILERS 65 3.2. TRANSPORT VEHICLES USED IN STORAGE 66 CHAPTER 4 EFFICIENCY OF TRANSPORT 67 4.1. EFFICIENCY OF THE TRANSPORT TECHNIQUES AND VEHICLES USED IN ORCHARD 67 4.2. THE METHODS OF EFFICIENCY ESTIMATION IN TRANSPORT TECHNIQUES 70 4.2.1. DISTANCES AND ROAD SURFACES 72 4.2.2. PARAMETERS FOR EFFICIENCY ESTIMATION 72 4.2.3. EFFECTIVE TRANSPORT EFFICIENCY 74 4.2.4. STANDARDIZED EFFICIENCY 74 4.3. ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF TRANSPORT TECHNOLOGIES 75 4.3.1. TIME OF OPERATIONS AND REAL RANGE OF TRANSPORT 76 4.3.2. TIME OF LOADING AND UNLOADING 78 4.3.3. VEHICLE DRIVING SPEED 79 4.3.4. EFFECT OF DISTANCE RANGE ON THE EFFICIENCY OF TRANSPORT VEHICLES 80 4.3.5. EFFICIENCY LEVEL OF VEHICLES OVER DIFFERENT TRANSPORT DISTANCES 81 4.3.5. EFFICIENCY OF TRANSPORT TECHNIQUES ON THE ROAD 82 4.3.6. STANDARDIZED EFFICIENCY OF TRANSPORT VEHICLES ON THE ROAD 83 CONTENTS 5 4.4. COSTS AND FUEL CONSUMPTION 84 4.4.1. FUEL CONSUMPTION 84 4.4.2. INSTANT FUEL CONSUMPTION 84 4.4.3. EFFECT OF TRANSPORT DISTANCE ON FUEL CONSUMPTION 85 4.4.4. COSTS OF APPLE TRANSPORT 87 CHAPTER 5 APPLE DAMAGE AND BRUISING IN TRANSPORT 91 5.1. FACTORS AFFECTING DAMAGES IN TRANSPORT OF APPLES 91 5.2. PROCEDURES OF STUDY THE EFFECT OF TRANSPORT ON APPLE DAMAGE 100 5.2.1. FIRMNESS, FRUIT SIZE AND WEIGH 100 5.2.2. VEHICLES SPEED AND TRANSPORT RANGE 101 5.2.3. VIBRATIONS 102 5.2.3.1. BIN VIBRATIONS MONITORING 103 5.2.3.2. FRUIT ACCELERATIONS IN BIN AS A CONSEQUENCE OF VEHICLE VIBRATIONS 105 5.2.4. DAMAGE CLASSIFICATION 108 5.2.5. EFFECT OF VEHICLE TYPE AND DRIVING SPEED ON FRUIT DAMAGE 109 5.2.6. EFFECT OF FRUIT POSITION IN THE BIN ON THE EXTENT OF DAMAGE 111 CHAPTER 6 FRUIT QUALITY AND TEXTURE 119 6.1. PHYSICAL METHODS FOR FRUIT QUALITY EVALUATION 120 6.2. NON-DESTRUCTIVE MEASUREMENTS FOR ON-LINE SORTING 121 6.2.1. LASER AIR-PUFF TEST 122 6.2.2. IMPACT OR BOUNCE TEST 122 6.2.3. SONIC AND ULTRASONIC METHODS 123 6.2.4. SONIC OR ACOUSTIC TESTS 123 6.2.5. ULTRASONIC TESTS 124 6.2.6. LIGHT SCATTER IMAGING 124 6.3. PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF TEXTURE 125 6.3.1. PARENCHYMA CELLS 125 6.3.2. CELL WALL 126 6.3.3. CELL TURGOR 127 6.3.4. CELL-TO-CELL DE-BONDING VERSUS CELL RUPTURE 128 6.3.5. OTHER ELEMENTS OF TISSUE STRENGTH 129 6.4. SENSORY EVALUATION OF TEXTURE 129 6.5. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES RELATED TO FRUIT FIRMNESS 130 6.5.1. INSTRUMENTAL MEASUREMENT OF TEXTURE AND FIRMNESS 131 6.5.2. ELASTIC AND VISCOELASTIC BEHAVIOR 132 6.5.3. MAGNESS-TAYLOR FRUIT FIRMNESS TESTER AND RELATED PENETROMETERS 133 6.5.4. HIGH RATE DEFORMATION - RESPONCE OF PHYSICAL QUANTITY ON IMPACT 133 6.5.5. FORCE/DEFORMATION CURVES AND RELATIONSHIP 134 6.5.5.1. PUNCTURE TESTS 136 6.5.5.2. SHEAR TESTS 137 6.5.5.3. COMPRESSION 138 6.5.5.4. TENSION TEST 139 6.5.5.5. TORSION TEST 139 6 HANDLING OF APPLE 6.5.5.6. TWIST TEST 139 6.5.5.7. BENDING TEST 139 6.6. JUICINESS 140 6.7. DENSITY 140 CHAPTER 7 QUALITY PROPERTIES OF APPLE 141 7.1. SIZE, SHAPE AND WEIGHT 142 7.2. MECHANICAL PARAMETERS OF APPLE 144 7.2.1. TENSION TEST 146 7.2.2. COMPRESSION TEST 147 7.2.3. PENETRATION TEST 148 7.2.4. BENDING TEST 149 7.3. APPLE FIRMNESS 151 7.3.1. WATER POTENTIAL OF TISSUE AND ELASTICITY OF APPLE FLESH 153 7.4. BACKGROUND FOR THE STUDY OF FIRMNESS MEASURING 155 7.4.1. DEFORMATION OF APPLE UNDER PLUNGER AND SUPPORT 156 7.4.1.1. FRUIT DEFORMATION UNDER SUPPORT 156 7.4.1.2. FRUIT DEFORMATION UNDER PLUNGER 157 7.4.1.3. WHY TRIPLE SUPPORT AND 6MM PLUNGER ARE USED FOR FIRMNESS METER 158 7.4.1.4. THE ELASTICITY METER 158 7.5. FRICTION BETWEEN APPLE AND FLAT SURFACES 161 7.5.1 STATIC AND DYNAMIC COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION 162 7.6. COLOR OF APPLE 165 7.6.1. PHYSICAL BASES OF HUMAN PERCEPTION OF COLOR 166 7.6.2. COLOR CHANGE OF APPLE AS A RESULT OF STORAGE, SHELF-LIFE AND BRUISING 169 7.7. NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF APPLE 177 7.8. WHAT PROPERTY IS MOST AFFECTING FACTOR ON QUALITY OF APPLE 177 CHAPTER 8 TRANSPORT REQUIREMENTS FOR APPLES 181 8.1. PRODUCT INFORMATION 181 8.1.1. PRODUCT NAME 181 8.1.2. TRADE PRODUCT DESCRIPTION 181 8.1.3. QUALITY / DURATION OF STORAGE 182 8.1.4. INTENDED USE 182 8.1.5. COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN 183 8.2. PACKAGING 183 8.2.1. TRANSPORT 183 8.2.1.1. SYMBOLS 183 8.2.1.2. MEANS OF TRANSPORT 184 8.2.1.3. CONTAINER TRANSPORT 184 8.2.1.4. CARGO HANDLING 184 8.2.1.5. STOWAGE FACTOR 184 8.2.1.6. STOWAGE SPACE REQUIREMENTS 184 8.2.1.7. SEGREGATION 184 8.2.1.8.