THE ROLE OF INTERGROUP THREAT IN ATTITUDES TOWARD SAME-SEX MARRIAGE AND ITS BENEFICIARIES HUMBOLDT STATE UNIVERSITY By James Patrick Clifton A Thesis Presented to The Faculty of Humboldt State University In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts in Psychology Academic Research May, 2011 THE ROLE OF INTERGROUP THREAT IN ATTITUDES TOWARD SAME-SEX MARRIAGE AND ITS BENEFICIARIES HUMBOLDT STATE UNIVERSITY By James Patrick Clifton Approved by the Master's Thesis Committee: Dr. Chris Aberson, Major Professor Date Dr. Gregg Gold, Committee Member Date Dr. Dave Campbell, Committee Member Date Dr. Chris Aberson, Graduate Coordinator Date Dr. Jená Burges, Vice Provost Date Abstract The Role of Intergroup Threat in Attitudes toward Same-Sex Marriage and its Beneficiaries James Patrick Clifton This study investigated the relationship between perceptions of threat and attitudes toward same-sex marriage from the framework of intergroup threat theory (ITT). Intergroup threat theory postulates that outgroup prejudice and discrimination are driven by threats to the ingroup. Threats in ITT include realistic threat (i.e., perceived impediments to ingroup welfare), symbolic threat (i.e., threats to the integrity of ingroup worldview), and intergroup anxiety. As a set, threats explained 84% of the variance in policy attitudes and 67% of the variance in beneficiary attitudes. Symbolic threat was most strongly tied to policy opposition, followed by intergroup anxiety and realistic threat. Prejudice toward beneficiaries of same-sex marriage was predicted by symbolic threat and intergroup anxiety, but not realistic threat. This work supported the prediction that stronger perceptions of intergroup threat are associated with greater resistance to same-sex marriage and more prejudiced attitudes toward its beneficiaries. Implications and directions for future research are discussed. iii Table of Contents Page Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iii Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... iv List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... vi List of Figures ................................................................................................................... vii Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1 Literature Review................................................................................................................ 5 Realistic Threat ............................................................................................................... 5 Symbolic Threat .............................................................................................................. 6 Intergroup Anxiety .......................................................................................................... 7 Integrated Threat Theory ............................................................................................... 11 Intergroup Threat Theory .............................................................................................. 12 Realistic threat ........................................................................................................... 13 Symbolic threat .......................................................................................................... 13 Intergroup anxiety...................................................................................................... 14 Statement of the Problem .................................................................................................. 15 Hypothesis 1 .............................................................................................................. 16 Hypothesis 2 .............................................................................................................. 17 Rationale .................................................................................................................... 17 Hypothesis 3 .............................................................................................................. 18 Rationale .................................................................................................................... 18 Method .............................................................................................................................. 19 Participants .................................................................................................................... 19 Measures ........................................................................................................................ 23 Realistic threat ........................................................................................................... 23 Symbolic threat .......................................................................................................... 23 iv Intergroup anxiety...................................................................................................... 24 Attitudes toward same-sex marriage ......................................................................... 24 Attitudes toward beneficiaries of same-sex marriage ................................................ 24 Procedure ....................................................................................................................... 25 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................ 25 Results ............................................................................................................................... 28 Reliability ...................................................................................................................... 28 Tests of Hypotheses ...................................................................................................... 31 Do the Threat Measures Address Distinct Constructs? ................................................. 36 Discussion ......................................................................................................................... 38 Attitudes toward Same-Sex Marriage ........................................................................... 38 Attitudes toward Policy Beneficiaries ........................................................................... 41 Limitations .................................................................................................................... 42 Directions for Future Research ..................................................................................... 44 General Discussion ........................................................................................................ 46 References ......................................................................................................................... 49 APPENDIX A ................................................................................................................... 58 Survey Form .................................................................................................................. 58 v List of Tables Table Page 1 Comparison of the Demographic Characteristics between HSU and ISU …...….21 2 Means, Standard Deviations, Correlations, and α Coefficients among Study Variables ………………………………………………………………….30 3 F Model, R2 Model, Squared Semi-Partial Correlations, Standardized Regression Coefficients, Raw Regression Coefficients, and 95% CI around Regression Coefficients ………………………………………………....33 4 Rotated Factor Loadings and Communalities of Realistic Threat, Symbolic Threat, and Intergroup Anxiety Items …………………………….….37 vi List of Figures Figure Page 1 Standardized Beta Coefficients Demonstrating the Role of Threats in Attitudes toward Same-Sex Marriage …………………………………………...34 2 Standardized Beta Coefficients Demonstrating the Role of Threats in Attitudes toward Same-Sex Marriage Beneficiaries …………………………….35 vii Introduction The contentious atmosphere surrounding the policy of same-sex marriage is characterized by fervor from the opposition and an equal intensity of ardor from proponents. Despite considerable strides made by the gay community in gaining equal rights over the past several decades, highly polarized attitudes surrounding same-sex marriage demonstrate that sexual prejudice remains a major societal issue (Herek, 2000). Given the long history of prejudice and discrimination faced by sexual minorities in the United States, it is not surprising that same-sex marriage is a topic of heated debate. Arguments against same-sex marriage are often framed in terms of clashing values or religious beliefs—barriers that are resistant to change (Herek, 2006). However, arguments against same-sex marriage often used in court rulings to depict harmful consequences of same-sex marriage (e.g., that children raised by same-sex parents are at risk for developmental problems) are not empirically substantiated (Patterson, 2009). Both the American Psychological Association (2004) and the American Psychiatric Association (2005) endorse legalization of same-sex marriages. The struggle to legalize same-sex marriage has been met with fierce opposition because many people perceive the policy as threatening (Schmitt, Lenmiller,