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POWER RUNS IN MANY CHANNELS: SUBFLOOR PITS AND WEST AFRICAN- BASED SPIRITUAL TRADITIONS IN COLONIAL VIRGINIA by Patricia Merle Samford A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Anthropology Chapel Hill 2000 Approved by Advisor: Professor Vincas Steponaitis Reader: Professor Carole Crumley Reader; Professoil^ofaya Dunbar Reader: Professor Glenn Hinson Reader] Professor James Peacock Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UMI Number: 9968667 UMI UMI Microform 9968667 Copyright 2000 by Bell & Howell Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. Bell & Howell Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ©2000 Patricia M. Samford ALL RIGHTS RESERVED « ii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ABSTRACT PATRICIA MERLE SAMFORD: Power Runs in Many Channels: Subfloor Pits and West African-Based Spiritual Traditions in Colonial Virginia (Under the direction of Vincas P. Steponaitis.) Enslaved Africans and their descendants comprised a significant portion of the colonial Virginia’s population. Many enslaved people of African descent lived on rural slave quarters, adjacent to the agricultural fields in which they labored. Since the 1970s, archaeologists working in the American South have been excavating the material remains of these slave quarters and learning about slave life. A common characteristic of Virginia slave quarters is the presence of subfloor pits dug into the soil underneath the houses. The functions of these pits has long been a matter of debate among archaeologists, with their use as storage places for personal belongings or root vegetables forming the most common explanation. Contextual and ethnohistoric data suggest that some of these pits may have served in a spiritual fashion as West African-style shrines. This dissertation examines physical characteristics and artifact assemblages from subfloor pits in Virginia to determine subfloor pit functions. The date range of this sample spans the late seventeenth to the mid-nineteenth centuries. I examined the shape, location, surface area and depth of 103 subfloor pits in order to determine if patterns existed that would allow the formation of hypotheses about pit function. Based on the results of this systematic analysis, I examined the artifact assemblages of subfloor pits from five slave quarters outside of Williamsburg, Virginia. Analysis showed evidence that these pits were used in several ways: for food storage, as personal storage spaces, and as West African-style shrines. The connections between Igbo cultural practices and Virginia archaeological evidence is explored. iii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Dedicated with love to the memories of my mother Alice Bailey Samford and my friend Thomas Henry Hargrove iv Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Completion of this dissertation would not have been possible without the assistance of many individuals. Committee members first and foremost can make all the difference in whether writing a dissertation is a lesson in torture, or an enriching experience. I would state unequivocally that my experience was the latter, thanks in large part to my great committee. My chair, Vin Steponaitis, always found time in his busy schedule to offer counsel and a sympathetic ear. Thanks are also in order to Carole Crumley, Robert Ann Dunbar, Glenn Hinson, and James Peacock. Many colleagues had a role in seeing this project through to its completion. Since much of my analysis focused on previously excavated archaeological sites, various institutions in Virginia made their collections available to me. I was made to feel particularly welcome at the James River Institute for Archaeology in Jamestown, Virginia, where the Utopia Quarter collections are curated. Diane Masters, Fiona Bessey, Sherrie Beavers, Tara Winters, Matt Laird, Dave Givens, Brad McDonald, and Rudy the dog made my frequent trips to JRIA not only smooth sailing, but fun too. My particular thanks go to Garrett Fesler, also at JRIA, who unselfishly shared data horn his own dissertation research, and was a great sounding board for what he must have thought were some pretty far-out ideas. At Virginia Commonwealth University, I gathered data on several seventeenth- and nineteenth-century sites that were used in the statistical analysis of pit change over time. At VCU, I would like to thank Dan Mouer, Robin Ryder, and Taft Kiser. The Kingsmill Quarter collections are stored at the Virginia Division of Historic Landmarks, in Richmond. I would like to thank Elisabeth Acuff, Keith Egloff, and Catherine Slusser for their assistance in working with these collections. The Department of Archaeological Research at the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation curates the Carter’s Grove Quarter assemblage. My thanks to Gregory Brown, Marley R. Brown III, William Pittman, and Kelly Ladd. Cary Carson, Jay Gaynor, and Martha Katz-Hyman, also at Colonial Williamsburg, assisted me. At Monticello, Fraser Neiman, Director of Archaeology, was kind enough to arrange housing at the Center for Jefferson Studies during my stay. Monticello’s Archaeological Lab Manager Leslie McFaden, and Archaeological Field Manager John Metz provided invaluable assistance with the Monticello artifacts and field notes. Working with collections located a state away from Chapel Hill meant that I needed homes away from home while I was on the road. Many people opened their homes to me and for those kindnesses, I am eternally grateful. Not only did I have a place to sleep, but was able to enjoy the company of good friends as well. Kara and John Metz hosted me while I worked in Richmond, as did Reverend Morgan and Nancy Smart. My sister, Nancy Durham, and my niece Alana and nephew Matthew put up with me on numerous occasions, cheerfully accepting v Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. a tired relative at the end of a long day. Ann, Carl, and Kate Martin kept a bedroom with my name on it in Williamsburg. They also made sure to invite other friends over during my visits, so I was able to keep up with old friends during my research trips. During the time that I worked on this project, I was also privileged to share in my goddaughter Kate’s early years - a joy that I will cherish always. Fellow students and colleagues in the Anthropology Department and the Research Laboratories of Archaeology at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill kept me going in many ways throughout this project. Tom Maher and Steve Davis were always there to answer computer questions, and took the time to make sure I understood enough to do it on my own the next time. Brenda Moore at the RL A and Suphronia Cheek in the Anthropology Department facilitated all those important necessities that graduate students sometimes overlook- like making sure I was registered and on the payroll! Mintcy Maxham and Sara Bon-Harper unraveled the mysteries of Excel on numerous occasions. Leslie Bartlett, Jane Eastman, Julie Flowerday, Alison Greene, Tom Hargrove, Joe Herbert, Annie Holm, Carla Jones, Elizabeth Jones, Diane Levy, Trish McGuire, Tim Mooney, Chris Rodning, Jennie Smith, Martha Temkin, Amber Vanderwarker,Greg Wilson, and Alicia Wise behaved in the way good friends do - they listened, held my hand,