ASSESSMENT AND GEO-STATISTICAL MODELING OF FLUORIDE POLLUTION AROUND BRICK KILNS IN RAWALPINDI / ISLAMABAD, PAKISTAN By RABAIL UROOJ Fatima Jinnah Women University Rawalpindi, Pakistan 2018 ASSESSMENT AND GEO-STATISTICAL MODELING OF FLUORIDE POLLUTION AROUND BRICK KILNS IN RAWALPINDI / ISLAMABAD, PAKISTAN By RABAIL UROOJ 2014-Ph.D-010 A dissertation submitted to the Fatima Jinnah Women University Rawalpindi, Pakistan In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of PHD IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES November, 2018 iii AUTHOR’S DECLARATION I Rabail Urooj hereby state that my PhD thesis titled “Assessment and Geo- Statistical Modeling of Fluoride Pollution around Brick Kilns in Rawalpindi / Islamabad, Pakistan” is my own work and has not been submitted previously by me for taking any degree from Fatima Jinnah Women University, Rawalpindi or anywhere else in the country/world. At any time if my statement is found to be incorrect even after my graduate the university has the right to withdraw my PhD degree. _______________ Rabail Urooj November, 2018 iv PLAGIARISM UNDERTAKING I solemnly declare that research work presented in the thesis titled “Assessment and Geo-Statistical Modeling of Fluoride Pollution around Brick Kilns in Rawalpindi / Islamabad, Pakistan” is solely my research work with no significant contribution from any other person. Small contribution/help wherever taken has been duly acknowledged and that complete thesis has been written by me. I understand the zero tolerance policy of the HEC and University Fatima Jinnah Women University, Rawalpindi towards plagiarism. Therefore, I as an Author of the above titled thesis declare that no portion of my thesis has been plagiarized and any material used as reference is properly referred/cited. I undertake that if I am found guilty of any formal plagiarism in the above titled thesis even after the award of the PhD degree, the University reserves the rights to withdraw/revoke my PhD degree and that HEC and the University has the right to publish my name on the HEC/University website on which names of students are placed who submitted plagiarized thesis. ____________ Rabail Urooj v TABLE OF CONTENT Acknowledgement……………………………………………….……………………..i List of Tables………………………………………...…………..…………………….ii List of Figures…………………………………………………………….…….…….iii List Abbreviations……………………………………………………………………..x Abstract………...........................................................................................................xiv 1. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................... 1 1.1. Importance of Crops in Pakistan ............................................................................. 2 1.2. Brick Kiln in Pakistan ............................................................................................. 3 1.3. Fate of Fluoride in Environment ............................................................................. 8 1.4. Fluoride Emission from Kiln .................................................................................. 9 1.5. Impacts of Fluoride ............................................................................................... 10 1.6. Effects of Fluoride compound on vegetation .................................................... …10 1.7. Emerging Science Technology ............................................................................ 17 1.8. Geo-statistical Modeling and Geo-Mapping ......................................................... 18 1.8.1. Spatial autocorrelation ....................................................................................... 18 1.8.2. Interpolation ....................................................................................................... 19 1.8.2.1. Kriging ............................................................................................................ 19 1.8.2.2. IDW................................................................................................................. 20 1.9. Objectives ............................................................................................................. 23 1.10. Study area............................................................................................................ 24 1.10.1. Islamabad ......................................................................................................... 24 1.10.2. Rawalpindi District .......................................................................................... 25 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS .......................................................................... 29 2.1. Data Collection ..................................................................................................... 29 vi 2.1.1. Primary Data: ..................................................................................................... 29 2.1.2. Secondary data ................................................................................................... 30 2.2. Leaf Injury ............................................................................................................ 30 2.3 Physicochemical analysis....................................................................................... 31 2.3.1. Soil Moisture. ..................................................................................................... 31 2.3.2. Organic Matter………………………………………………………………... 31 2.3.3. Soil Texture:....................................................................................................... 31 2.3.4. Soil pH and Electrical Conductivity .................................................................. 32 2.3.5. Micronutrients .................................................................................................... 32 2.4. Soil Fluoride Concentration .................................................................................. 33 2.5. Plant/Vegetation Fluoride Concentration ............................................................. 33 2.6. Single Factor Pollution Index ............................................................................... 34 2.7. Spatial autocorrelation .......................................................................................... 35 2.8. Hotspot analysis .................................................................................................... 35 2.9. Normalized Difference Vegetation Index ............................................................. 37 2.10. Interpolation ........................................................................................................ 37 2.10.1. Inverse Distance Weighting Interpolation ....................................................... 37 2.10.2. Kriging ............................................................................................................. 37 2.11. Standard Deviational Ellipses ............................................................................ .38 2.12. Statistical analysis ............................................................................................... 40 3. RESULTS ............................................................................................................... 41 3.1. Visible leaf injury ................................................................................................. 43 3.1.1. Effect on Winter Wheat Crop ............................................................................ 43 3.1.2. Effect on Summer Maize Crop .......................................................................... 50 3.2. Physicochemical analysis ...................................................................................... 56 vii 3.2.1. Moisture ............................................................................................................. 56 3.2.2. pH ....................................................................................................................... 57 3.2.3. Electrical Conductivity ...................................................................................... 59 3.2.4. Organic Matter ................................................................................................... 61 3.2.5. Fluoride .............................................................................................................. 63 3.2.6. Calcium .............................................................................................................. 65 3.2.7. Magnesium ......................................................................................................... 66 3.2.8. Manganese ......................................................................................................... 68 3.2.9. Zinc .................................................................................................................... 69 3.2.10. Copper .............................................................................................................. 71 3.2.11. Aluminum ........................................................................................................ 73 3.2.12. Iron ................................................................................................................... 74 3.2.13. Cadmium .......................................................................................................... 76 3.2.14. Chromium ........................................................................................................ 77 3.2.15. Lead.................................................................................................................