A Generic Approach to Modelling Individual Behaviours in Crowd Simulation Quanbin Sun PhD thesis University of Salford School of Built and Environment 2013 TABEL OF CONTENTS TABEL OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................. I LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................... VI LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................... X LIST OF FORMULAS ............................................................................................. XII DECLARATION ..................................................................................................... XV ABBREVIATIONS................................................................................................. XVI ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................... XVII CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................. 1 1. 1 Research Context ................................................................................................ 1 1. 1. 1 Introduction to Crowd Modelling and Simulation ...................................... 1 1. 1. 2 The Need for New Research ....................................................................... 3 1. 1. 3 The Research Scope in this Study ............................................................... 4 1. 2 Aim and Objectives ............................................................................................. 5 1. 3 Research Methodologies .................................................................................... 5 1. 3. 1 Literature Review ........................................................................................ 6 1. 3. 2 Software Prototyping .................................................................................. 6 1. 4 Organisation of the Thesis .................................................................................. 6 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW: CROWD MODELLING & SIMULATION ............. 9 2. 1 Overview ............................................................................................................. 9 2. 1. 1 What is a Crowd Model? ............................................................................. 9 2. 1. 2 What is Crowd Simulation? ......................................................................... 9 2. 1. 3 Purposes and Usages of Crowd Modelling and Simulations..................... 10 2. 1. 4 Benefits and Limitations of Crowd Simulations ........................................ 11 2. 1. 5 The Terminology in this Study................................................................... 13 2. 2 Categorisation of Crowd Models ...................................................................... 16 2. 2. 1 Categorisation Criteria .............................................................................. 16 2. 2. 2 Crowd Modelling Approaches ................................................................... 17 2. 3 Macro Scope Crowd Models ............................................................................. 19 2. 3. 1 Typical Macro Scope Crowd Models ......................................................... 19 2. 3. 2 Discussion .................................................................................................. 20 2. 4 Micro Scope Crowd Models .............................................................................. 20 2. 4. 1 Force-based Models .................................................................................. 21 2. 4. 2 Cellular Automata (CA) based Models ...................................................... 43 2. 4. 3 Agent-based Models (ABM) ...................................................................... 53 2. 4. 4 Hybrid Models ........................................................................................... 59 2. 4. 5 Other Modelling Approaches .................................................................... 75 2. 5 Summary of Crowd Models .............................................................................. 77 2. 6 Crowd Model Applications and Simulations ..................................................... 79 2. 6. 1 Emergency Evacuations ............................................................................ 79 2. 6. 2 The lane formation of a bi-directional crowd flow ................................... 87 2. 7 Research Trends and New Requirements Identified from the Literatures ...... 89 2. 7. 1 Heterogeneous Crowd .............................................................................. 90 2. 7. 2 Individual Behaviours ................................................................................ 92 2. 7. 3 Generic Crowd Modelling ......................................................................... 93 2. 7. 4 Summary of the Research Needs .............................................................. 95 2. 8 Summary of the Chapter ................................................................................... 95 CHAPTER 3 LITERATURE REVIEW: TECHNOLOGIES FOR CROWD SIMULATION ... 96 3. 1 Overview ........................................................................................................... 96 3. 2 Crowd Simulation Software .............................................................................. 98 3. 2. 1 Surveys on existing Crowd Simulation Software ...................................... 98 3. 2. 2 Discussions on Crowd Simulation Software ............................................ 103 3. 3 Crowd Simulation Packages ............................................................................ 104 3. 3. 1 Reviews of Crowd Simulation Packages .................................................. 104 3. 3. 2 Discussions on Simulation Packages ....................................................... 115 3. 4 Navigations in Crowd Simulation .................................................................... 117 3. 4. 1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 117 3. 4. 2 Navigation from Different Points of View ............................................... 117 3. 4. 3 Navigation Methods ................................................................................ 119 3. 5 Summary of the Chapter ................................................................................. 121 CHAPTER 4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES ....................................................... 122 4. 1 Overview ......................................................................................................... 122 4. 1. 1 Research Paradigm .................................................................................. 122 4. 1. 2 Research Framework and Key Methods ................................................. 123 4. 2 Literature Review ............................................................................................ 123 4. 2. 1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 123 4. 2. 2 Outcomes of Literature Review .............................................................. 124 4. 3 Software Prototyping ...................................................................................... 126 4. 3. 1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 126 4. 3. 2 Discussions on Similar Research Methods .............................................. 127 4. 3. 3 Process of Prototyping ............................................................................ 128 4. 3. 4 Using Examples to Demonstration and Validation ................................. 129 4. 3. 5 Introduction ............................................................................................ 129 4. 4 Summary of the Chapter ................................................................................. 130 CHAPTER 5 CROWD MODEL DESIGN .............................................................. 131 5. 1 Overview of the Crowd Model ........................................................................ 131 5. 1. 1 Research Scopes of this Crowd Model .................................................... 131 5. 1. 2 Modelling Approaches ............................................................................ 132 5. 1. 3 Crowd Model Structure ........................................................................... 133 5. 2 Details of the Crowd Model ............................................................................ 135 5. 2. 1 Types of Behaviour in this Crowd Model ................................................ 136 5. 2. 2 Representation of Behaviour Effect ........................................................ 138 5. 2. 3 Agent Design ........................................................................................... 150 5. 2. 4 Behaviour Library .................................................................................... 163 5. 3 How the Crowd Model Works ......................................................................... 182 5. 3. 1 The Workflow of the Crowd Model ........................................................ 182 5. 3. 2 Example: Two Agent Walking Through a Corridor .................................. 184 5. 4 Summary of the Chapter ................................................................................