A Discursive Analysis of Women’s Femininities within the Context of Tunisian Tourism A thesis submitted to Middlesex University in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Heather Jeffrey Middlesex University Business School February 2017 Abstract Tourism has been hailed as a vehicle for gender equality and women’s empowerment and yet the relationship between these is far from simple. As tourism is created in already gendered societies, the ability of the industry to empower is shaped by existing gender norms and discourses. Therefore utilising a postcolonial feminist frame, the primary focus of this thesis is to critically explore both the discursive role of tourism and its influence in (re)constructing feminine identities in Tunisia. Informed by the works of Michel Foucault, and postcolonial feminism a critical discourse analysis is performed to identify discourses on femininity within the (re)presentations of Tunisian women in the Tunisian National Tourism Office’s brochures and website. Critical discourse analysis often risks disempowering the communities it seeks to analyse and as such fifteen semi-structured, in-depth interviews were carried out with Tunisian women involved in the Tunisian tourism industry. The interviews were shaped by a terrorist attack targeting tourists that had happened just two weeks before. Interestingly both the promotional materials and the interviews display two particular discourses on femininity, the modern and uncovered daughter of Bourguiba, and the southern covered Other. Of these discourses, it is the daughter of Bourguiba who is privileged and the southern veiled Other who is excluded. These discourses have been fomented since independence from France in 1956 and the rule of President Habib Bourguiba, but they still have a very material impact on the lives of Tunisian women today as evidenced in the interviews. This thesis contributes to both tourism and postcolonial studies in its problematisation of the connotation of Othering as essentially negative. When discourses of the Other shaping (re)presentations refrain from the construction of a monolithic categorisation, they can be more inclusive than discourses of similarity, which exclude all Others. This is linked to host self (re)presentation being intimately entwined within a system of both local and global politics, when cross-cultural (re)presentations are removed from at least some of these. The use of photo elicitation is developed to gain an understanding of how those (re)presented view those (re)presentations, but also to overcome linguistic and cultural barriers. i Acknowledgements I will forever be in the debt of Middlesex University, not only for awarding me the studentship which has enabled me to undertake this project but also for providing me with the opportunity and environment to grow. I would also like to thank Prof. Nick Rumens – you taught me without teaching, showed me the way but never imposed – thank you. Sue Bleasdale, it is because of you that we are here, you introduced to me to Tunisia, have always supported me, and you are more than a supervisor. Hyung yu, you made me think, you encouraged your students to engage in academic exploration, but with warmth and kindness that has always meant you will be far more than just a lecturer – and I cannot remember how many pints I owe you now. Erin Sanders-McDonagh, you have been more important to me than you will ever know, thank you for mentoring me, for introducing me to the RGS, for helping me with the proposal and all your feedback, I am sure you will see the influence you have had in the pages of the thesis. I am also grateful to many of the academic networks that have supported me over the last three and a bit years: the GLTRG and GFRG at the Royal Geographical Society, WAiT, and CTS, among all of the academics that have influenced not just my research but my ‘self’. I want to show my gratitude to my dad, thank you for never telling me to behave ‘like a girl’, for always believing in me and for pushing me, for always being there whenever things went wrong - in Lanzarote, Tunisia, London, Brazil… Thank you for showing me there is so much more to the world than I will ever be able to see, and for supporting me in trying to achieve the impossible. I still remember the day a 16-year-old me told you I wanted to study tourism and you were not convinced, ‘it wasn’t academic enough’, but you quickly gave in and since then we have come a long way. Martin, rather than a thank you, I think I should say a sorry, sorry for all the lost weekends and evenings, sorry for all my clothes on the floor, sorry for all my books and my notes on the table. You have been by my side since before the PhD began, I have learnt more from you than I have ever given you credit for! I must acknowledge the kindness my participants showed me throughout their interviews. Finally and most importantly, Chokri, Balsam, Belkis, Amal, Imed and all of your families, I will never be able to thank you for the kindness you have shown me. This thesis would never have happened if it was not for you, I can only hope that one day I will be able to repay you. Until we meet again Tunisia, may that day be sooner rather than later. ii Part of this thesis’ advances benefited from the research stay in La Universidad Nacional de Cordoba, Argentina in the context of INCASI Network coordinated by Dr Pedro López-Roldán, a European project that has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie GA No 691004 Parts of this thesis have been published in the following chapter: Jeffrey, H.L. and Bleasdale, S. (2017). Tunisia: Mass Tourism in Crisis? In D. Harrison and R. Sharpley (Eds.), Mass Tourism in a Small World. Wallingford: CABI And presented at the following conferences: Jeffrey, H. (2016). Daughters of Bourguiba. Paper presented at: the Royal Geographical Society (IBG) Annual International Conference, August 20-September 24, 2016, London. Jeffrey, H. (2016). Reflecting on insiders and outsiders in tourism and gender research. Paper presented at: the School of Hospitality and Tourism Management Conference 2016, th July 19 -22nd, 2016, Surrey University, Guildford. Jeffrey, H. (2016). Connecting insiders and outsiders in tourism and gender research. Paper presented at: the 2016 Research Student Summer Conference, June 29-30, 2016, Middlesex University, London. Jeffrey, H. and Sposato, M. (2016). Intermediaries, understanding and misunderstandings of class and gender in cross-cultural research. Paper presented at: 9th Biennial Gender Work and Organisation conference, 29th June-1st July, 2016 Keele University, UK. Jeffrey, H. (2015). Determined Netnography. Paper presented at: the Royal Geographical Society (IBG) Annual International Conference, September 1-4, 2015, Exeter, UK. Jeffrey, H. (2015). Exploring Gender in Tourism Discourse. Paper presented at: the 2015 Critical Tourism Studies Conference, June 26-30, 2015, Opatija, Croatia. Jeffrey, H. (2015). Tunisia, Gender, and Tourism Discourse. Paper presented at: the 2015 Research Student Summer Conference, June 17-18, 2015, Middlesex University, London. Jeffrey, H. (2014). Analysing Gendered Representations. Paper presented at: the 2014 International Antalya Hospitality Tourism and Travel Research Conference, December 9-12, 2014, Antalya, Turkey iii Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................................i Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................ ii Figures ............................................................................................................................................. vii 1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 1 Introducing Gender and Tourism .................................................................................................... 2 Gender and Discourse ..................................................................................................................... 5 Aim and Research Questions .......................................................................................................... 6 Contribution to knowledge ............................................................................................................. 7 Thesis Structure .............................................................................................................................. 8 2 Tourism and Gender ..................................................................................................................... 11 Tourism and Gender: Dynamic links ............................................................................................ 12 Women and Tourism Employment ............................................................................................... 14 Tourism (re)presentations ............................................................................................................. 19 Origin of (re)presentation ............................................................................................................. 22 Tourism and the (re)presentation of Women ................................................................................ 29 Host Implications .........................................................................................................................