DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF THE COACH-ATHLETE RELATIONSHIP ENHANCEMENT INTERVENTION By Wim Kuit Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology in the Faculty of Health Sciences at the Nelson Mandela University April 2018 Supervisor: Prof. Mark B. Watson Co-supervisor: Dr. Lynn Slogrove Co-supervisor: Dr. Anna Sutton ii DECLARATION I, Wim Kuit (199238367), hereby declare that the thesis for Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology is my own work and that it has not previously been submitted for assessment or completion of any postgraduate qualification to another university or for another qualification. 2017-11-17 ______________________ _____________________ Wim Kuit Date iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my gratitude and appreciation to the following individuals for their contribution to this thesis: - Prof. Mark B. Watson, for his enthusiastic and affirming support and for his rigour and consistency in guiding the research process. - Dr. Lynn Slogrove, for her pragmatic support and forward-thinking and for instilling a sense of confidence in the value of the research. - Dr. Anna Sutton, for her tremendous insight in supporting the conceptual and methodological development of the research, and for her generosity. - The coaches and athletes, for participating so passionately and willingly in the research process. - My wife Alison, for her constant love and support and for ‘holding the fort’ with such patience and grace. - My two sons Benjamin and Daniel, who bring lightness and joy to every day. - My parents Geert and Lerina, for their practical support and enthusiasm about this project. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS1 DECLARATION ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii LIST OF TABLES xiii LIST OF FIGURES xv ABSTRACT xvii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1 Context of Research 1 Sport Psychology’s Relationship Territory 1 The Coach-athlete Relationship 3 A Need for Coach-Athlete Relationship Enhancement Interventions 7 The Role of Personality in Enhancing Coach-Athlete Relationships 8 The Enneagram Personality Theory and Typology 10 Research Aims 11 Research Aim 1 11 Research Aim 2 11 Outline of Study 12 CHAPTER TWO: THE COACH-ATHLETE RELATIONSHIP AND PERSONALITY MODELS 14 Introduction 14 Models of the Coach-Athlete Relationship 15 Defining CAR Quality 15 1 For brevity not all heading levels have been included. v Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Factors (IIF) Model 16 Facet-analytical Model 18 Qualitative-Interpretive (Holistic) Model 20 Motivational Model 22 Reversal Theory Model 25 3C and 3 + 1Cs Models 29 COMPASS Model 33 Summary of Models of the Coach-Athlete Relationship 35 An Intervention Model for Coach-Athlete Relationship Enhancement 37 Models of Personality in Coach-Athlete Relationship Research 39 A Holistic View of Personality for Coach-Athlete Relationship Enhancement 40 Three-dimensional Personality Framework: Current Views in Coach-Athlete Relationship Research 41 Dispositional traits 41 Dispositional traits: five factor model 42 Characteristic adaptations 45 Motivational characteristic adaptations: Self-determination theory 46 Social-cognitive characteristic adaptations: Self-efficacy theory 49 Developmental characteristic adaptations: Attachment theory 52 Other theories and constructs 56 Personal narratives 57 Summary of Models of Personality in Coach-Athlete Relationship Research 60 Conclusion 62 vi CHAPTER THREE: THE ENNEAGRAM AND COACH-ATHLETE RELATIONSHIP ENHANCEMENT 64 Introduction 64 Enneagram Personality Theory and Typology 65 A Definitive Enneagram Model for Intervention 68 Three-dimensional Review of Enneagram Theory 69 The Enneagram and Dispositional Traits 69 Enneagram dispositional traits and CAR enhancement 71 Enneagram and dispositional trait research 73 The Enneagram and Characteristic Adaptations 75 The Enneagram and motivational characteristic adaptations 76 Enneagram motivational characteristic adaptations and CAR enhancement 81 Enneagram and motivational characteristic adaptation research 85 The Enneagram and social-cognitive characteristic adaptations 87 Enneagram social-cognitive characteristic adaptations and CAR enhancement 90 Enneagram and social-cognitive characteristic adaptation research 94 The Enneagram and developmental characteristic adaptations 96 Enneagram developmental characteristic adaptation research 97 The Enneagram and Personal Narratives 98 Enneagram narrative processing and CAR enhancement 101 Conclusion 102 vii CHAPTER FOUR: THE COACH-ATHLETE RELATIONSHIP ENHANCEMENT INTERVENTION 104 The Coach-Athlete Relationship Enhancement (CARE) Intervention 104 CARE – Part 1 106 Enneagram training session 106 CARE – Part 2 110 Re-authoring conversations 110 CARE – Part 3 114 The COMPASS strategies 115 The Awareness to Action Process 117 Conclusion 125 CHAPTER FIVE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 126 Introduction 126 Research Design 126 Research Aim 1 127 Research Aim 2 127 Mixed Method Design 127 Two Phase Evaluation of the CARE Intervention 130 Phase 1 – Evaluation of CARE Part 1 130 Method 130 Sample 134 Data Collection 137 viii Quantitative data 137 Qualitative data 139 Biographical questionnaire 141 Phase 2 – Evaluation of Total CARE Intervention (Parts 1 – 3) 142 Method 142 Data Collection 142 Quantitative data 142 Qualitative data 142 Data Analysis 145 Phase 1 - Quantitative data analysis 145 Phase 2 - Quantitative data analysis 146 Phase 1 and 2 - Qualitative data analysis 147 Ethical Considerations 157 Summary 158 CHAPTER SIX: RESULTS - PHASE ONE 159 Introduction 159 Phase One: Evaluation of CARE – Part 1 (Enneagram Training Session) 160 Quantitative Results 160 Descriptive statistics and alpha reliabilities 160 Intercorrelations 162 Completion rates 162 Data Analysis Process and Results 163 Restructuring data 163 ix Short-term, longer-term and delayed effects of CARE – Part 1 165 Enhanced closeness 167 Enhanced commitment 167 Enhanced complementarity 168 Enhanced CAR quality total 169 Enhanced co-orientation 169 Summary of Quantitative Results 171 Qualitative Results 172 Theoretical Thematic Analysis – Open-ended Surveys 173 Enhanced closeness 174 Enhanced commitment 176 Enhanced complementarity 178 Summary of Theoretical Thematic Analysis – Open-ended Surveys 182 Inductive Thematic Analysis – Open-ended Surveys 185 Enhanced understanding of the other in the CAR 186 Enhanced self-awareness 190 Enhanced team relationships 196 No change in the CAR 199 Summary of Inductive Thematic Analysis 200 Conclusion 202 CHAPTER SEVEN: RESULTS - PHASE TWO 203 Introduction 203 Phase Two: Evaluation of the total CARE intervention (Parts 1 – 3) 203 x Quantitative Results 203 Enhanced co-orientation 204 Summary of Quantitative Results 206 Qualitative Results 206 Theoretical thematic analysis – Focus group 206 Enhanced closeness 207 Enhanced commitment 210 Enhanced complementarity 212 Summary of Theoretical Thematic Analysis – Focus Group 219 Inductive Thematic Analysis – Focus Group 222 Enhanced understanding of the other in the CAR 223 Enhanced self-awareness 227 Enhanced team relationships 229 Summary of Inductive Thematic Analysis – Focus Group 231 Conclusion 232 CHAPTER EIGHT: DISCUSSION, LIMITATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS 233 Brief Review of Theory and Research Context 233 Coach-Athlete Relationship Enhancement 233 CAR models and the Enneagram Typology 233 The CARE Intervention in Brief 234 CARE – Part 1 234 CARE – Part 2 235 CARE – Part 3 235 xi Discussion of Results - Phase One 235 Expanding CAR models 238 Integration of Quantitative and Qualitative Results 239 CARE – Part 1’s longer-term and delayed effects 239 Discussion of Results – Phase Two 242 Impact of Further Intervention 242 CARE – Part 2 242 CARE – Part 3 243 Summary of Phase One and Phase Two Results 244 Three-dimensional Analysis of the Enneagram in CAR Enhancement 245 CARE and Dispositional Traits 245 CARE and Characteristic Adaptations 246 Motivational characteristic adaptations 246 Social-cognitive characteristic adaptations 247 Developmental characteristic adaptations 247 Personal Narratives 248 Theory and Practice Implications 248 Limitations of the Study 250 Suggestions for Future Research 250 Conclusion 252 REFERENCES 253 APPENDIX A: CARE – Part 3: Action Plan Template 285 APPENDIX B: Participant Information Letter 287 xii APPENDIX C: CART-Q Direct and Meta-Versions 288 APPENDIX D: Open-ended Surveys 292 APPENDIX E: Biographical Questionnaires 293 APPENDIX F: Semi-structured Focus Group Interview Guide 297 APPENDIX G: Consent Form 298 APPENDIX H: Confidentiality Agreement 302 APPENDIX I: Statistical Tables and Calculations 303 APPENDIX J: CARE Intervention: Session Reviews 310 xiii LIST OF TABLES Table 1. The Four Pairs of Metamotivational States in Reversal Theory 26 Table 2. A Dispositional Trait Description of the Nine Enneagram Types 72 Table 3. The Nine Enneagram Type Strategies 80 Table 4. Enneagram Type Schemas (Worldview and Focus of Attention) 89 Table 5. Adaptive Enneagram Type Schemas 93 Table 6. CARE – Part 1: Enneagram Training Session 108 Table 7. CARE – Part 2: Re-authoring Coach and Athlete Personal Narratives 113 Table 8. CARE Part - 3: Interpersonal Behaviour Change Intervention 124 Table 9. Switching-replications Design Structure 131 Table 10. Total Sample: Sport Code and Gender Distribution 134 Table 11. Sample Description and Biographical Information 136 Table 12. Themes and Codes for Thematic Analyses of Focus Group Transcripts and Survey Responses 154 Table 13. Total Sample Means and Alpha Reliabilities for the Direct and Meta 160 Table 14. Group A and Group B Alpha Reliabilities