The Political Culture of Democracy in Colombia and the Americas, 2012: Towards Equality of Opportunity Juan Carlos Rodríguez-Raga, Ph.D. Universidad de los Andes Mitchell A. Seligson, Ph.D. Scientific Coordinator and Series Editor Vanderbilt University This study was made possible with support from the American people delivered through the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID). The contents are the exclusive responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the opinion of USAID or the U.S. government. December 2012 1 Table of Contents Table of Contents Table of Contents ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... iii Tables .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... vii Figures .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ix Preface ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ xv Prologue: Background to the Study ............................................................................................................................................................... xvii Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................................................................................................xxvi Executive Summary ............................................................................................................................................................................................. xxxi Understanding Figures in the Study ........................................................................................................................................................... xxxix Part I: Equality of Opportunity and Democracy in the Americas .............................................................................................................1 Chapter One: Equality of Economic and Social Opportunities in the Americas ................................................................................. 3 I. Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................................................................3 II. Background: Equalities in Economic and Social Opportunities in the Americas .........................................................5 III. Equalities in Economic and Social Opportunities in Colombia: A View from the AmericasBarometer .......... 12 Public Opinion on Racial and Gender Inequality ................................................................................................... 28 IV. Public Opinion on Policy Proposals for Greater Equity ................................................................................................... 31 Conditional Cash Transfer and Public Assistance Programs .............................................................................. 32 Affirmative Action .............................................................................................................................................................. 37 V. Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 38 Special Report Box 1: Educational Achievment and Skin Tone ...................................................................................... 40 Special Report Box 2: Economic Crisis, Skin Tone, and Household Wealth ............................................................. 41 Special Report Box 3: Support for Interethnic Marriage ................................................................................................... 42 Chapter Two: Equality of Political Participation in the Americas .......................................................................................................... 43 I. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 43 II. Participation in the Americas in 2012 ...................................................................................................................................... 46 Voter Turnout ...................................................................................................................................................................... 46 Beyond Voter Turnout ..................................................................................................................................................... 48 III. Public Opinion on Opportunities and Discriminatory Attitudes ................................................................................... 55 Public Opinion towards Political Leadership by Women .................................................................................... 56 Public Opinion towards Political Leadership by Those from Marginalized Racial/Ethnic Groups ...... 57 Public Opinion towards Political Leadership by Homosexuals ......................................................................... 59 Public Opinion towards Political Leadership by People with Disabilities ...................................................... 60 IV. Public Opinion on Policy Proposals ........................................................................................................................................ 62 Gender Quotas ................................................................................................................................................................... 62 Compulsory Voting ........................................................................................................................................................... 63 Reduction in Economic and Social Inequality ......................................................................................................... 63 iii AmericasBarometer 2012, Colombia V. Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 64 Special Report Box 4: Political Participation and Gender ................................................................................................. 65 Special Report Box 5: Gender Quotas and Women’s Participation .............................................................................. 66 Special Report Box 6: Compulsory Voting and Inequalities in Political Participation .......................................... 67 Chapter Three: The Effect of Unequal Opportunities and Discrimination on Political Legitimacy and Engagement ....... 69 I. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 69 II. Inequality, Efficacy, and Perceptions of Representation ................................................................................................... 71 III. System Support and Engagement with Democracy .......................................................................................................... 78 IV. Protest Participation ..................................................................................................................................................................... 81 V. Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 83 Special Report Box 7: Political Knowledge and the Urban-Rural Divide .................................................................... 85 Special Report Box 8: Discrimination and System Support ............................................................................................. 86 Special Report Box 9: Support for Democracy and Electoral Information ................................................................ 87 Part II: Governance, Political Engagement, and Civil Society in the Americas ................................................................................. 89 Chapter Four: Corruption, Crime, and Democracy .................................................................................................................................... 91 I. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 91 II. Corruption .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 93 Perception of Corruption ...............................................................................................................................................