The Elder Gods The Otherworld of Early England Stephen Pollington Contents Table of Figures ..................................................................................................................9 Glossary............................................................................................................................ 12 Acknowledgements.......................................................................................................... 15 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 17 The Object of Enquiry................................................................................................. 17 The Cultural Continuity Problem................................................................................ 19 The ‘Pagan’ Problem................................................................................................... 20 Cædmon’s Epiphany ................................................................................................... 22 2. Sources of Information ................................................................................................ 26 Archaeology ................................................................................................................ 26 Literature...................................................................................................................... 30 Verse ....................................................................................................................... 32 Poet and Storyteller............................................................................................ 32 Beowulf.............................................................................................................. 36 Genealogies............................................................................................................. 39 Prohibitions............................................................................................................. 41 Folklore........................................................................................................................ 42 Folktale ................................................................................................................... 46 Yuletide Customs ................................................................................................... 47 Tabu ........................................................................................................................ 48 Comparative Material.................................................................................................. 50 The Germanic World.............................................................................................. 51 A Warning to the Curious.................................................................................. 53 Three Functions ...................................................................................................... 56 The Stone of Destiny.............................................................................................. 58 Status of the Vanir .................................................................................................. 59 3. Heathen Worship.......................................................................................................... 62 Gods, Myth and Religion ............................................................................................ 63 Myth........................................................................................................................ 63 Religion................................................................................................................... 65 Observing Anglo-Saxon Religion ..................................................................... 66 The Gods and Their Cults ........................................................................................... 74 The Names of God.................................................................................................. 74 Ese........................................................................................................................... 77 The Wið Færstice Charm................................................................................... 80 Wæne ...................................................................................................................... 82 Mægen & Hæl ........................................................................................................ 84 Hæl and Kingship .............................................................................................. 85 Places of Worship........................................................................................................ 88 Barrows................................................................................................................... 92 3 Post, Bog and Hall .................................................................................................. 93 Men and Gods .................................................................................................... 97 World-Tree......................................................................................................... 97 Waterways and Marsh Hoards......................................................................... 101 Ealh ....................................................................................................................... 103 Hearh..................................................................................................................... 103 Hof......................................................................................................................... 105 Hyrst...................................................................................................................... 108 Leah....................................................................................................................... 108 Stapol..................................................................................................................... 109 Stow....................................................................................................................... 112 Weoh ..................................................................................................................... 112 Priesthood .................................................................................................................. 116 Priestesses ............................................................................................................. 120 Scop & Þyle .......................................................................................................... 120 Bede and Coifi ...................................................................................................... 122 The Horned Man................................................................................................... 129 Horned Helmets ............................................................................................... 130 Worship of the Gods.................................................................................................. 136 Sacrifice ................................................................................................................ 137 The Sacrificial King......................................................................................... 141 Wih and Halig .................................................................................................. 143 Rites and Rituals ................................................................................................... 144 Ritual and Initiation ......................................................................................... 146 Song and Dance ............................................................................................... 148 Ritual Meals ..................................................................................................... 149 The Symbolic Head.......................................................................................... 151 Symbel.............................................................................................................. 154 Mead and the Drink of Youth.......................................................................... 158 Ritual Drama......................................................................................................... 163 Masks................................................................................................................ 165 4. The Elder Gods........................................................................................................... 166 Tiw ............................................................................................................................. 167 Tiw & Beowulf ..................................................................................................... 172 Woden........................................................................................................................ 173 Woden, the Ninth Father ...................................................................................... 181 Sacral Kingship..................................................................................................... 184 The Woden Cult...................................................................................................