SOCIAL MOVEMENTS IN IRAN AND THE TRENDS OF POLITICAL EXPRESSIONISM A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI‘I AT MĀNOA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN POLITICAL SCIENCE MAY 2018 BY REZA MOHAJER Thesis Committee: Nevzat Soguk, Chairperson Manfred Henningsen Michael Shapiro Kate Zhou Reza Ghorbani Keywords: Social Movements, Middle East, Intergenerational Expression, ICTs, Human Rights, Social Change. ii Dedication This work is dedicated to all the heroic individuals who suffered and died during 18 Tir and the Green Movement because of their beliefs in secular democracy and freedom for the people of Iran. This research intends to honor their sacrifices to make way for a better future; not only in Iran, but also in the Middle East and the world. iii Acknowledgments I would like to thank everyone in the committee for my dissertation who helped make this project possible with their support every step of the way: Nevzat Soguk, Michael Shapiro, Kate Zhou, Manfred Henningsen, and Reza Ghorbani. I would like to appreciate my advisor, Nevzat Soguk, for his paramount guidance to make this research possible and for advising me during this Ph.D. program to reach crucial insights in the field of political social science. Michael Shapiro and his valuable academic mentoring helped me develop the integral research acumen necessary for framing the scope of this study. I am grateful to Kate Zhou for her ceaseless moral support and friendship, Manfred Henningsen for challenging me to include diverse perspectives in my research, and Reza Ghorbani for working with the committee as a University representative. Finally, I thank the faculty at University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa, and in particular, the political science department, for the opportunity and support to continue my academic and political works. After months of effort in reaching out to the many great participants and collecting crucial data, this research has come into fruition. It was a long journey from the struggle in Iran and direct experience with social movements to reaching this level of detailed theoretical analysis. My goal for this research is to be part of a new era in social movement and political theory that can advance at a pace where political events are better understood as they happen. iv Abstract The 2009 Green Movement in Iran attracted global attention as a new kind of social movement in which for the first time in the 21st century, millions of people risked their lives in peaceful protests to replace a oppressive theocratic regime. Afterward, the numbers of activists in other movements worldwide reached peaks from thousands to millions. Increased usage of Information Communication Technologies (ICTs) and their impact on Traditional Communication Methods (TCMs) transformed the nature of contention, entering an age of redefining the conceptualization of space defined as Political Expressionism, abstract like the age of expressionism in art. Two questions about the Green Movement framed this dissertation: “What is the Iranian dream for change, its achievements, and what will be in store for the next chapter of social movements in Iran?” and “What impact did ICTs have on the conceptualization of space in state and society?” Relevant theories were contrasted to analyze the evolution of social movements. A historical overview of social movements in Iran revealed a shift from TCMs to ICTs by contrasting 18 Tir (the peaceful July 1999 student uprising) with the Green Movement, both movements being significant for their respective times and considering their similarities and differences. A discussion of ICTs alongside a literature review evaluated their relatedness to newer social movements: the Arab Spring, Taksim Square (Gezi Park) Movement, Umbrella Revolution, and the Bahraini and Syrian uprisings. Surveys and interviews of Iranian nationals and both former and current activists from different hierarchies within the Green Movement and 18 Tir worldwide shaped the scope of this research to highlight key trends. This study aims to bridge knowledge gaps between the theory and practice of social movements for academics and human rights activists alike. v Keywords: Social Movements, Activism, Censorship, Resistance, Middle East, Nonviolent tactics, Intergenerational Expression, ICTs, Human Rights, Social Change. vi Table of Contents ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................. iii ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................... iv ABBREVIATIONS / KEY TERMS .................................................................................. ix CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 1 Why the Green Movement is Different ................................................................................ 1 CHAPTER 2 - THEORETICAL FOUNDATION ........................................................... 22 Preface Definition of Social Movements ........................................................................................... 23 Contemporary Organizational Models of Social Movements .................................. 27 Network Theories ...................................................................................................... 31 Resource Mobilization .............................................................................................. 32 Social Movement Analysis Framework .................................................................... 34 Conceptualization of Space ........................................................................... 34 5 Dimensions ................................................................................................. 37 Political Expressionism and Conceptualization of Space ............................. 45 Defining a People .......................................................................................... 46 On Measuring Success .................................................................................. 50 CHAPTER 3 - 18 TIR AND THE GREEN MOVEMENT ............................................. 59 Historical Overview and Emergence .................................................................................... 59 The Green Movement ........................................................................................................... 67 Differences from 18 Tir ............................................................................................ 83 Commonalities with 18 Tir ....................................................................................... 89 Summation ............................................................................................................................ 89 CHAPTER 4 - ROLES OF ICTs ....................................................................................... 91 Preface ................................................................................................................................... 91 Historical Overview .............................................................................................................. 93 Transformations of Space ..................................................................................................... 98 Blogosphere and Web Security ............................................................................................. 103 vii Suppression of the Internet in Iran ........................................................................................ 115 Summation ............................................................................................................................ 121 CHAPTER 5 - REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS: A LITERATURE + MEDIA REVIEW ............................................................................ 124 Preface 124 Social Movements with Reduced Volatility ......................................................................... 125 Implications of the Green Movement for Political Expressionist Social Movements .......... 125 Arab Spring ........................................................................................................................... 133 Preface 133 Tunisia ....................................................................................................................... 135 Egypt ......................................................................................................................... 141 Taksim Square Gezi Park ...................................................................................................... 153 Turkey ....................................................................................................................... 153 The Umbrella Movement ...................................................................................................... 160 Hong Kong ................................................................................................................ 160 Social Movements with Increased Volatility ........................................................................ 165 Bahrain ...................................................................................................................... 166 Syria .......................................................................................................................... 169 Summation