University of Montana ScholarWorks at University of Montana Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers Graduate School 2006 Colonization and local adaptation of sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) of Lake Clark Alaska Kristina Marie Ramstad The University of Montana Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd Let us know how access to this document benefits ou.y Recommended Citation Ramstad, Kristina Marie, "Colonization and local adaptation of sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) of Lake Clark Alaska" (2006). Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers. 9603. https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd/9603 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at ScholarWorks at University of Montana. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at University of Montana. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Maureen and Mike MANSFIELD LIBRARY The University of Montana Permission is granted by the author to reproduce this material in its entirety, provided that this material is used for scholarly purposes and is properly cited in published works and reports. **Please check "Yes" or "No" and provide signature** Yes, I grant permission No, I do not grant permission Author's Signature Any copying for commercial purposes or financial gain may be undertaken only with the author's explicit consent. 8/98 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. COLONIZATION AND LOCAL ADAPTATION OF SOCKEYE SALMON (ONCORHYNCHUS NERKA) OF LAKE CLARK, ALASKA by Kristina Marie Ramstad B.A. Wellesley College 1993 M.Sc. University of Washington 1998 Presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Montana 2006 Approved by: Chair, Board of Examiners v Dean, Graduate School S - a-QCo Date Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UMI Number: 3234433 INFORMATION TO USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleed-through, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. ® UMI UMI Microform 3234433 Copyright 2006 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Abstract Ramstad, Kristina M., Ph.D., May 2006 Organismal Biology and Ecology Colonization and Local Adaptation of Sockeye Salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) of Lake Clark, Alaska Chair: Fred W. Allendorf Adaptive divergence is expected among sockeye salmon (Oncorhychus nerka) populations because they spawn in diverse habitats and experience spatially and temporally restricted gene flow. Genetic bottleneck effects are also expected among sockeye salmon populations because they are a highly structured species with excellent colonizing abilities. To test if phenotypic divergence among sockeye salmon populations is due to local adaptation or genetic drift, I compared neutral genetic and heritable phenotypic variation in spawning populations of sockeye salmon throughout the Lake Clark area of Alaska. I assessed nuclear (microsatellites and allozymes) and mitochondrial DNA variation of 15 sockeye salmon populations. Reduced allelic and haplotypic diversity and strong divergence of Lake Clark populations relative to Six-mile and Iliamna Lake populations suggest a bottleneck associated with the colonization of Lake Clark by sockeye salmon between 100 and 400 generations ago. The Sucker Bay Lake population had an exceptionally severe reduction in allelic diversity at microsatellite loci but not mtDNA, suggesting this population has experienced consistently smaller effective population size than other Lake Clark populations. Geographic distance and spawning habitat apparently do not contribute to neutral genetic divergence among populations. However, temporal isolation based on spawning time and founder effects associated with ongoing glacial retreat contribute to the genetic population structure of Lake Clark sockeye salmon. Significant phenotypic divergence among spawning populations was associated with spawning habitat differences, but not neutral genetic divergence among populations. For example, female body color was lighter and egg color darker in glacial than non-glacial habitats due possibly to reduced selection for red spawning color in glacial habitats and an apparent trade-off between body and egg color in females. Mean PSt (phenotypic divergence among populations) exceeded neutral FST for most phenotypic traits indicating that phenotypic differences among populations could not be explained by genetic drift alone. Plasticity is an unlikely source of phenotypic differences because Lake Clark sockeye salmon spend nearly all their lives in a common environment. These data suggest that Lake Clark sockeye salmon populations are adapted to spawning in beach, tributary, and glacial habitats and provide the first evidence of a glacial spawning phenotype among sockeye salmon. ii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Acknowledgements It is not possible to provide due thanks here to the many people that have contributed to my dissertation. They span the globe from Montana to New Zealand and include members of my dissertation committee, numerous field and lab technicians, and many people that shared their knowledge, expertise, and resources with me. I could not have completed this work without their support. I thank Fred Allendorf, my major advisor, for all that he has taught me and for his encouragement, support, and guidance. Thanks also to the other members of my dissertation committee, Lisa Eby, Doug Emlen, Scott Mills, Andy Sheldon, and Carol Woody, for their guidance of this research. I have learned a tremendous amount from each of you that will continue to guide my work. For Chapters 2, 3, and 4 ,1 owe thanks to all who collected samples in the field including Jake Allgeier, Rita Corcoran, Patricia Hernandez, Craig Kasemodel, Kerry Kilcoyne, Penny Knuckles, Duncan Oswald, Todd Rinaldi, Dan Rugerillo, Heather Rugerillo, Carl Saunders, Martin Stafford, Dalit Ucitel, and Johnny Zutz. Thanks also to those who collected data in the lab including Kevin Sage, Ghazal Ataian, Flo Gardipee, and Elizabeth Benolkin. Thanks to Jim Seeb, Tom Quinn, Ian Stewart, and Tim Brabets for sharing samples and data with me, Damon Holzer for his GIS expertise, Andy Gray, Dimitri Churikov, and Chris Kondzela for helpful advice on mtDNA analysis, Chris Foote, Gordon Luikart, Jennifer Neilsen, Jeff Olsen, Joel Reynolds, Ellie Steinberg, Fred Utter, and John Wenburg and for helpful discussions and reviews of draft manuscripts. Many thanks to Vanetta Burton and Joe Ball of the Montana Co-op Research Unit for administering this project and the National Park Service for critical field support. I am indebted to Dan Young for the varied roles he played, including fireside songleader, in making this research both fun and successful. iii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Many thanks to the Maori elders that generously gave their time and knowledge for Chapter 5 of this dissertation. This includes Mildred and Dale Connor, George Martin, Ropata Taylor, Barney Thomas, Bunna Riwaka, Glenice Paine, Jim Hintze Elkington, Ross Kawharu, Bill Webber, Priscilla Paul, Ben Hippolite, Jim Elkington, Ru and Moana Rene, and Whetu McGregor. Thanks also to Cathleen Carew and Hillary McGregor for help in coordinating and transcribing interviews, Pete Gaze and Mike Aviss for expert tuatara input, Penny Kukuk and Rich Clow for advice in working with TEK, Richard Romijn for digging up historical tuatara documents, Jenny Neale and Rich Arnold for survey design advice, and Gavin Laurie, Matt Bestram, and Dan Whaley for assistance with the technical audio and video aspects of this project. This project would not have been possible without the dedicated efforts of Diana Beech, Glenice Paine, and Anaru Paul. I deeply enjoyed working with them on this project and appreciate all their efforts. Funding for Chapters 2, 3, and 4 was provided by the Office of Subsistence Management of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the National Park Service, and the Alaska Science Center of the U.S. Geological Survey. Chapter 5 was funded by the National Science Foundation Training Within Environmental Biology Program (T-WEB) of the University of Montana, the School of Biological Sciences and University Research Office of Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand, and the Allan Wilson Centre for Molecular Ecology and Evolution, New Zealand. Many thanks to all at the