The Full Gospel Church and Korean Shamanism in Japan-Resident Korean Society Shamanism as a Universal Foundational Religion Iida Takafumi Religion in Japan-resident Korean society is a complex fusion of interrelated facets. It involves, in addition to traditional Confucian rites and Korean shamanism (Jp. fuzoku 巫俗),1 Korean Buddhism, Christianity, and belief in various Japanese religions including Buddhism, Shinto, folk reli- gions, and new religions. Furthermore, among the Japan-resident Koreans (zainichi korian 在 日コリアン ) there is a considerable difference between the religious faith and practice of the “oldcomers” (the Koreans who came to Japan before World War II and their succeeding generations) and that of the “newcomers” (those who came to Japan from the 1970s and after). If we categorize these groupings into ethnic-culturally oriented (that is, “assimilation” oriented, zainichi oriented, homeland oriented) and organiza- tional/network (voluntary networking, formal organization network) types, * Iida Takafumi is a professor in the Faculty of Letters, Department of Sociology, at Otani University. The English translation is by Jon Morris, Tohoku University. 1. Note on the translation: fuzoku has been translated as “Korean shamanism” through- out. Both the English and Japanese terms are used to imply a broad range of traditions, such as Kuh, and typically Korean modes of shamanic behavior in a broad sense. Personal names are given in the Japanese order, with the addition in some cases of alternative (anglicized or Japanese) names which appear in English-language materials. 122 iida takafumi | 123 we may lay out the various categories as per the table below (from Iida 2002, 58). Within these various groupings, religions that might be described as shamanic or charismatic include the rituals of Korean shamanism and the Full Gospel type churches, among others. Korean shamanistic rituals have been performed among female “oldcomers” of advanced years, particularly among those hailing from Osaka’s former Cheju-do (Jp. Sashūtō 済州島) islander circles. In contrast to this, the Full Gospel Churches mainly attract female “newcomer” believers. Social relationships and connections between members of the two groups are not apparent. The assertion has been made by Korean theologians that the rapid devel- opment of Korean Christianity has been due to the foundations provided by traditional shamanism. Certainly, the promulgation of Christianity in Asia has been carried out mainly since the modern period, and pre-existing folk-culture traditions of shamanism have survived in abundance. In Japan, Table 1. Combinatory Forms and Cultural Orientations of Various Korean Religions among Japan-resident Koreans (Iida 2002, 58). Voluntary Ethnic cultural Networking festivals Formal Japanese The Korean Christian Full Gospel type organization New Religions Church in Japan, Churches type 在日大韓基督教会 (Zainichi Daikan Kirisuto kyōkai) Family Council Cemeteries 親族会霊園 (Shinzokukai reien) Network Japanese Bud- Erecting tombstones Korean Buddhism, (primordial, dhism, Shinto, zainichi Folk Religions Korean shamanic functional) Japanese Folk rituals, Religions Confucian rituals Combination type “Assimilation” zainichi homeland oriented Cultural oriented orientation 124 | The Full Gospel Church and Korean Shamanism in Japan shamanism has been relegated to remote or outlying areas (northeast- ern area, southern islands, and mountainous regions). In Korea, however, the religious traditions of Korean shamanism have been richly preserved throughout the various regions; albeit consigned as female culture to a sub- ordinate position to the male culture of Confucianism. According to Yu Don- shik 柳東植, Korean Christianity developed due to, and through, its affinity with the Korean Shamanic concept of hananim (“one god” or “heaven”). Though it thus inherited and took on the characteristics of a dependence on salvation faith (salvation by divine grace as opposed to one’s own works) with a strong emphasis on apotropaic aspects, it was engaged with the issue of moving beyond this set of qualities (see Yu 1975). Summing up the insights of a number of Korean research works, Kim Eungi (2012) has discussed the close relationship between Korean Christianity and Korean shamanism.2 Furthermore, there are research papers that discuss the fast- ing and prayer institutions of Full Gospel churches as a conspicuous point of contact with Korean shamanism (Fuchigami 1994, 2010). In Japan-res- ident Korean society, however, we cannot find human connections which might represent a direct point of convergence and contact between the two religious groups. There are several fasting and prayer institutions attached to Full Gospel churches, and one hears that there is glossolalia and fervent prayer of a different nature to the worship in the churches; but a direct link to the traditions of a Korean shamanic nature has not been confirmed. Korean Shamanic Rituals in Japan-resident Korean Society Here, let us interpret “Japan-resident Korean” to mean, for the time being, registered inhabitants of North and South Korea resident in Japan. Among the Japan-resident Korean population, which numbers around 500,000, around half live in the Kansai region, centering on Osaka. The Ikuno 生野 ward of Osaka city is an area with a particularly dense Japan- resident Korean population, the greater part of which is made up of former residents of Cheju-do island. It may be presumed that traditional rituals of Korean shamanism were carried out within the Cheju-do islander net- 2. See the essay by Andrew Kim in this current volume. iida takafumi | 125 work before the war. After the war, however, such activities took the form of the chōsen-dera 朝鮮寺 (Japan-resident Korean temples) established in the Ikoma 生駒 mountain range (see Iida 1988). These number around sixty institutions, and while to the outside world they appear to be nothing other than Buddhist temples, they have functioned as places for the ritu- als of Korean shamanism. In these rituals, for the purposes of propitiatory memorial services for the spirits of the dead (shisharei 死者霊), divine spirits (kamigami 神々) are summoned by a specialist shamanistic medium with spiritual abilities, and the spirits of the dead speak through the medium (kuchiyose 口寄せ). Korean shamanistic rituals, which take place over two or three days to a week and sometimes ten days, are carried out in the temples of Mt. Ikoma. Korean shamanistic rituals of shorter duration were also car- ried out widely in a number of temples in Osaka City’s Ikuno Ward, with its high concentration of Japan-resident Koreans, and the areas around it Figure 1: Ikoma Shintokuin 神徳院. Standing on the right hand side is the great rod (Ōzao 大竿) which calls down (manekiorosu 招き降ろす ) the spirits (kamigami). Figure 2: Husband and wife fusha calling down the spirits. Figure 3: A Fusha tearfully gives voice to the words of a spirit of a deceased person. iida takafumi | 127 (Iida 2002). From the 1990s onward, however, due to generational changes, the activities of the Japan-resident Korean temples on Mt. Ikoma have declined. Korean shamanistic rituals from the Cheju-do island lineage (both the mediums, fusha 巫者, and those who call on their services) are falling, and have ceased to be held with the same regularity as in previous years (Shūkyō shakaigaku no kai 2012). Furthermore, even amongst those of Cheju-do island descent, female masters of prayer-rites from mainland areas such as Pusan and Seoul called posaru (meaning “bodhisattva”, Jp. bosatsu 菩薩) have been widely accepted and integrated. Though the posaru’s prayer rites involve the chanting of Buddhist sutras, they also include shamanic aspects such as the channeling of messages from the spirits of the dead (kuchiyose) and spiritual inspiration under the influence of spirits (reikan 霊感). Direct human links between the world of the posaru and that of Christianity cannot be confirmed. The Development of Christian Churches The Korean Christian Church in Japan The Korean Christian Church in Japan (Zainichi Daikan Kirisuto Kyōkai 在 日大韓基督教会) is a Protestant church that has been active in Japan-resi- dent Korean communities since before World War ii. It was established in 1908 by students from the Korean peninsula studying in Japan, and hav- ing passed through some difficult periods (such as the colonialization of Korea), it now has a hundred churches and mission centers (fukyōjo 布教 所) throughout Japan, and has around five thousand followers. It takes on and hosts missionaries from the Presbyterian, Methodist, and other mainstream Korean churches. As an ethnic church (minzoku kyōkai 民族教会), one of the mainstays of its missionary direction is the issue of human rights by Japan- resident Koreans, and the abolition of discrimination toward them. Within The Korean Christian Church in Japan there are two distinct groups, each with their own leanings. One is a group that gives specific weight to taking on the aforementioned social issues, which we might call the “Society-oriented Group,” and the other group, which we might call the “Gospel-oriented Group,” puts emphasis on salvation from within (Iida 2002, 297). Though in the Gospel-oriented Group there are those who 128 | The Full Gospel Church and Korean Shamanism in Japan emphasize the workings of the Holy Spirit in prayer, this is not to suggest that this group displays the hallmark features of a Pentecostal church, such as the practice of glossolalia. Perhaps some several thousand Japan-resident Korean Christians belong to the Catholic Church, but the actual figure is unclear. Ethnic aspects of this community are not particularly emphasized, and most members use Japanese names (tsūmei 通名). There may be some in the Japan-resident Korean Catholic community who emphasize, on a personal level, the work- ings of the Holy Spirit; but there are no reports of any organized charismatic activities. The Missionary Activities of Japan Full Gospel Church A Korean Protestant group which shows clear Pentecostalist ten- dencies is the highly influential Japan Full Gospel Church, founded in 1958 by Cho Yonggi 趙鏞基 (David [formerly Paul] Yonggi Cho).