Wen Huifang Understanding Young Adults’ Perception of Their Childhood Bullying and Victimization: A Phenomenological Research Master’s Thesis in Education FACULTY OF EDUCATION Education and Globalization 2018 University of Oulu Faculty of Education Understanding Young Adults’ Perceptions of Their Childhood Bullying and Victimization: A Phenomenological Research (Huifang Wen) Master’s Thesis in Education, 114 pages, 2 appendices April 2018 Childhood bullying, and victimization is a worldwide issue in the field of education. We now through research that bullying has longitudinal negative influences upon former victims’ psychological, physical, and economic circumstances decades after the incidence of childhood bullying. However, not enough studies have been conducted to address these longitudinal unfair experiences, including the study of the underlying reasons of its longitudinal continuity upon victims and trans-generational potential through social cognitive theory. Neither has there been enough research focusing on the victims’ perspective, to explore their current cognition of childhood bullying experiences and to find proper guidance and treatment for their PTSD symptoms. Different from previous quantitative studies which reveal the longitudinal psychological consequences correlating their childhood bullying suffering through specific variables, this qualitative research is aimed at giving victims a voice regarding their individual experiences and present a holistic picture of how individuals experienced bullying in childhood and furthermore exploring how can victims empower and heal themselves through cognitive restructuring. Phenomenology is employed to explore and present the subjective reality of their lived experiences. This study examined 7 young adults, aged between 26-30 years, who presently study in the University of Oulu and shared the experience of bullying in childhood. The data was collected through semi-structured interviews with snow-ball sampling method was utilized to search for participants accurately and reliably. Despite the different cultural backgrounds, all research participants demonstrated similar types of experiences with comparable symptoms. In my research, bullying victimization is found as a dynamic and reciprocal process during which the victims internalize and reinforce the distorted cognition and automatic thoughts and become emotionally consumed, psychologically tormented, and physically paralyzed to fight back. The mechanism of re-victimization may lie in the continuity of the internalized incorrect cognitions. In this research moral dilemma, Stockholm syndrome, and societal convention that bullying equals “competitive selection” were discussed for future research. Social cognitive theory is applied to analyze the data, while cognitive behavior therapy is recommended to restructure the former victims’ automatic thoughts and distorted cognitions. This research may contribute to academic discussion on the cross-contextual and trans- generational continuity of bullying re-victimization and bullying intervention program. Keywords: bullying, longitudinal, phenomenology, social cognitive theory, cognitive behavior therapy, perception Contents 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................. 6 2 Theoretical Frameworks ........................................................................................................................... 12 2.1 Definition of Bullying ............................................................................................................................. 12 2.2 Teasing vs Bullying ................................................................................................................................ 13 2.3 Theoretical Orientation for the Study ..................................................................................................... 15 2.3.1 Social Cognitive Theory ................................................................................................................ 16 2.3.2 Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT) .............................................................................................. 17 2.4 Literature Review and Critique of Previous Research Theories and Methods ....................................... 19 2.4.1 Social Ecological Theory .............................................................................................................. 19 2.4.2 Theories to Analyze Family Factors ............................................................................................. 19 2.4.3 Previous Studies on Cognitive Analysis Regarding to Longitudinal Influence ............................. 22 2.4.4 Methodology of Literature Review and Conclusion for This Part................................................. 29 3 Phenomenology .......................................................................................................................................... 32 3.1 The History, Ontology, and Epistemology of Phenomenology .............................................................. 32 3.2 The Specific Application of Phenomenology in This Research ............................................................. 37 3.2.1 Definition of Phenomenology and Applicability ........................................................................... 37 3.2.2 Research Procedures..................................................................................................................... 40 3.2.3 Selection of Research Participants ................................................................................................ 41 3.2.4 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................................ 42 4 Findings ...................................................................................................................................................... 44 4.1 Reasons for Being Bullied ...................................................................................................................... 44 4.1.1 Physical Appearance ..................................................................................................................... 44 4.1.2 Social-economic Background ........................................................................................................ 45 4.1.3 Social-economic Background ........................................................................................................ 46 4.1.4 Group Conflict in Classroom ........................................................................................................ 47 4.1.5 Differences and Low Probability of Retaliation ............................................................................ 48 4.2 Childhood Perception of Bully Victimization ........................................................................................ 49 4.2.1 Self-blame ...................................................................................................................................... 49 4.2.2 Learnt Helplessness ...................................................................................................................... 50 4.2.3 Hypersensitivity of Interpersonal Interaction and Relationship ................................................... 51 4.2.4 Doubtful of Self-worth ................................................................................................................... 52 4.2.5 Blame Their Families .................................................................................................................... 53 4.3 Measures to Confront Bullying in Childhood ......................................................................................... 54 4.3.1 Avoidance of Conflicts .................................................................................................................. 54 4.3.2 Relocation ..................................................................................................................................... 55 4.3.3 Self-confidence Rebuilding ............................................................................................................ 56 4.4 Adulthood Perceptions of Bullying Victimization .................................................................................. 56 4.4.1 Understanding the Influences of Bullying victimization ................................................................ 57 4.4.2 Find Solutions to Heal Themselves ............................................................................................... 63 4.4.3 Help Others with Bullying Issues .................................................................................................. 65 4.4.4 Identify Protective Factors ............................................................................................................ 66 5 Discussions of the Findings ....................................................................................................................... 68 5.1 Reasons for Bullying .............................................................................................................................. 68 5.2 Childhood Cognition of Victimization ................................................................................................... 72 5.3 Measures for Confrontation ...................................................................................................................