INDENTURED SEX WORK MIGRATION FROM EDO STATE TO EUROPE NAVIGATION IN VIOLENT CONTEXTS Wetenschappelijke verhandeling Aantal woorden: 24.416 Sophie Lindiwe Samyn Stamnummer: 20055788 Promotor: dr. Jeroen Cuvelier Commissaris: dr. Marlene Schäfers Masterproef voorgelegd voor het behalen van de graad Master in de richting Conflict en Development Academiejaar: 2017-2018 Abstract (NL) Sinds de jaren negentig migreren Edo meisjes in groten getale vanuit Nigeria naar Europa. Ze sluiten een overeenkomst met een sponsor, die hun migratieproject financiert. Nadat ze Europa illegaal binnenkomen worden ze tewerkgesteld in de prostitutie, zodat ze hun schuld kunnen terugbetalen. Deze studie onderzoekt wat deze Indentured Sex Work (ISW)-migratie motiveert. Hierbij wordt afgeweken van algemene theorievorming en berichtgeving die de vrouwen bestempelt als slachtoffers in de handen van mensenhandelaars. In de plaats daarvan wordt gekozen voor een open mobiliteitskader waarin de ervaringen en verbeelding van de vrouwen centraal komen te staan. Agency en geweld werden gebruikt als analytische tools doorheen het migratietraject. Een multi-sited onderzoeksdesign, uitgevoerd in Nigeria en Belgieë, verbindt de recente literatuur en expertise over ISW-migratie met een diepgaande analyse van de levensverhalen van tien Edo vrouwen. De studie concludeert dat (1) de ernstige vormen van structureel geweld waaraan Edo vrouwen worden onderworpen, (2) de kracht van de verbeelding, (3) de medeplichtigheid van de gemeenschap en spirituele wereld en (4) de mogelijkheid tot het verwerven van een hogere sociale positie in Nigeria, de belangrijkste factoren zijn die ISW-migratie van Edo state naar Europa bevorderen. i Contents Aknowledgements.................................................................................................................................................. vi Abbreviations and terminology........................................................................................................................ vii 1 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Setting the tone................................................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Research question and relevance................................................................................................................................ 2 1.3 Structure................................................................................................................................................................................ 3 2 LITERATURE........................................................................................................................................................... 3 2.1 The human trafficking frame and its limits............................................................................................................. 3 LOCATING CONSENT IN HT................................................................................................................................... 6 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS......................................................................................................................................... 6 BEYOND HT.................................................................................................................................................................. 8 2.2 New theoretical framework........................................................................................................................................... 9 2.2.1 Mobility lens: the subjective experience of irregular migrants........................................................9 2.2.1 Navigating in contexts of violence.............................................................................................................11 VIOLENCE................................................................................................................................................................... 11 AGENCY....................................................................................................................................................................... 12 3 METHODOLOGY.................................................................................................................................................. 13 3.1 Positionality statement................................................................................................................................................. 13 3.2 Multi-sited fieldwork..................................................................................................................................................... 14 OBSERVATIONS........................................................................................................................................................ 14 LIFE STORIES............................................................................................................................................................ 14 EXPERT INTERVIEWS............................................................................................................................................ 15 EXISTING DATA AND OTHER SOURCES.........................................................................................................15 3.3 Analysis................................................................................................................................................................................ 15 3.4 Challenges & Limitations.............................................................................................................................................. 16 4 BACKGROUND INFORMATION........................................................................................................................ 17 5 NAVIGATION IN CONTEXTS OF VIOLENCE.................................................................................................. 20 5.1 Traveling............................................................................................................................................................................. 21 5.1.1 Violence in Benin.............................................................................................................................................. 21 BEING STUCK ON THE WRONG SIDE..............................................................................................................21 INSECURITY AND DISTRUST.............................................................................................................................. 23 5.1.2 Going Abroad...................................................................................................................................................... 25 ii MIGRATION DESIRE............................................................................................................................................... 25 GIRLS, YOU CAN PAY LATER!.............................................................................................................................. 27 COMMUNAL COMPLICITY.................................................................................................................................... 28 5.1.3 Journey through hell........................................................................................................................................ 29 5.2 Indentured Sex Work..................................................................................................................................................... 31 5.2.1 Debt bondage...................................................................................................................................................... 31 DECEPTION................................................................................................................................................................ 32 THE PACT.................................................................................................................................................................... 32 BEATINGS AND THREATS.................................................................................................................................... 34 ILLEGALITY AND SEX WORK.............................................................................................................................. 35 5.2.2 Man go survive.......................................................................................................................................................... 36 ESCAPE........................................................................................................................................................................ 37 LOYALTY..................................................................................................................................................................... 37 AGENCY OF CONCEALMENT............................................................................................................................... 39 5.3 Beyond debt....................................................................................................................................................................... 39 5.3.1 From tactics to strategies.............................................................................................................................