i THE EFFECTS OF MESSAGE FRAMING, THEORY OF REACTANCE, AND EGO- DEPELTION ON THE EFFICACY OF A DRINKING REDUCTION CAMPAIGN _______________ A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Department of Psychology University of Houston _______________ In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy _______________ By Chun-Han Chen August, 2014 ii THE EFFECTS OF MESSAGE FRAMING, THEORY OF REACTANCE, AND EGO- DEPLETION ON THE EFFICACY OF A DRINKING REDUCTION CAMPAIGN _________________________ Chun-Han Chen APPROVED: _________________________ Clayton Neighbors, Ph.D. Committee Chair _________________________ C. Raymond Knee, Ph.D. _________________________ Suzanne Kieffer, Ph.D. _________________________ F. Richard Olenchak, Ph.D. College of Education _________________________ John W. Roberts, Ph.D. Dean, College of Liberal Arts and Social Sciences Department of English iii THE EFFECTS OF MESSAGE FRAMING, THEORY OF REACTANCE, AND EGO- DEPLETION ON THE EFFICACY OF A DRINKING REDUCATION CAMPAIGN _______________ An Abstract of a Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Department of Psychology University of Houston _______________ In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy _______________ By Chun-Han Chen August, 2014 iv ABSTRACT This dissertation focuses on message framing with the goal of designing effective advertisements that advocate healthy drinking styles. Rooted in persuasion models, message framing by gain or loss frame may directly convince people or indirectly prime subconsciousness. Two studies were conducted. Ego-depletion was considered with framed message in the first study, and the theory of reactance was utilized to predict the communication outcome in the second study, which also considered the roles of self-esteem, instability of self-esteem, and self-relevance. Reduction of future drinking intentions was the goal of message delivery. Both studies recruited students who were regular drinkers, mostly females to complete online surveys, with random assignment to ego-depletion or waiting conditions (Study 1) and messages to evaluate (Study 1 & 2). Several regression models were tested with a unique measure of regular drinking in each equation. Ego-depletion among heavier drinkers was positively associated with ratings of health messages, which provided partial support for hypotheses of Study 1. Reactance to follow coercive health advice was supported indirectly by higher drinking intention. Higher self-esteem and unstable self-esteem were positively related to message acceptance, which was counter to expectations. Self-relevance with drinking was found to moderate the effects of message framing on drinking intention. This was interpreted as an indirect indication of reactance. Overall, findings were somewhat supportive of hypotheses and provide a unique contribution to understanding of message framing and alcohol communications. Limitations and future directions are summarized. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Introduction 1 Persuasion for Health Campaign 3 Health Communication: Processing and Perceived Message 4 Implication Social Marketing as Message Processing 6 Message Framing, Mind Processing, and Other Exemplary Forms of 8 Health Communication Framing: Gain Frame and Loss Frame 11 Gain Frame and Loss Frame in Miscellaneous Topics 13 Frame (Gain vs. Loss) on Health Issues 16 Known Moderators behind Gain vs. Loss Frame 18 Frame (Gain vs. Loss) and Emotion on Health Issues 21 Message Framing and Drinking 24 Bridging: Future Directions 25 Study 1: Message Framing and Ego-depletion on Drinking Reduction 26 Ego-depletion and its Implications 27 Ego-depletion affects Attitude Certainty and Information Processing 28 Moderating Drinking to be Controlled 29 Ego-depletion and Loss Frame on Health Campaign 30 vi Study 1: Method 31 Participants 31 Experimental Materials: Drinking Scales 32 The Quantity-Frequency-Peak Alcohol Use Index 32 The Daily Drinking Questionnaire 33 The Rutgers Alcohol Problem Index 33 The Drinking Intention Scale 33 Experimental Materials: Imaginative Writing Task 33 Presented Health Messages 34 The Messages and Believability Scale 34 Experimental Procedures 34 Study 1: Results 35 Predictors by Experimental Design 35 Outcome 36 Drinking as the Statistical Covariates 36 Analyses 36 Descriptive Statistics 37 Regression 37 Study 1:Discussion 40 Study 2: Message Framing and Theory of Reactance on Drinking 44 Reduction Campaign Psychological Reactance and Message Framing 45 vii Uniqueness of Statistical Information plus Texts Messages 47 Moderators—Self-esteem and Self-esteem instability 49 Self-esteem 49 Instability of Self-esteem 50 Self-relevant Issue and Intellectual Reasoning 51 Self-Relevance and Health Decision 52 Study 2: Method 54 Design 54 Participants 55 Messages 55 Experimental Procedures: Recruiting and Survey 56 Measures 57 The Self-esteem Scale 57 Instability of Self-esteem 57 The Message Believability Scale 58 Self-relevance 58 Study 2: Results 59 Scores by Experimental Groups 59 Outcomes 59 Drinking as the Statistical Covariates 60 Analyses 60 Descriptive Statistics 61 viii Regression for H3, H4 and H5 61 Study 2:Discussion 68 Conclusion 72 Research Limitation 75 Future Directions 79 References 85 Tables 104 Figures 156 Appendices 170 Appendix A: Tested Health Messages 170 Appendix B: Consent Forms 180 Appendix C: Measurement Tools 186 Appendix D: Experimental Manipulations for Study 1 200 ix List of Tables Table Page 1 Various Framing beside Gain vs. Loss 104 2 Framing (gain vs. loss) Researches in Miscellaneous Areas 105 3 Framing (gain vs. loss) Researches in Health Promotions. 107 4 Frame (Gain vs. Loss) and Emotion at Health Issues 109 5 Message Framing on Alcohol Problem 111 6 Correlation and Descriptive Statistics: Study 1:Ego-Depletion 113 7 Message rating as a function of ego-depletion and drinks per 114 week 8 Message rating as a function of ego-depletion and peak drinks 115 9 Message rating as a function of ego-depletion and typical drinks 116 10 Message Rating as a Function of Drinks per week, Ego-depletion 117 and Message Framing 11 Message Rating as a Function of Typical Drinks, Ego-depletion 118 and Message Framing 12 Weekly Drinking Intentions a Function of Drinks per week, Ego- 119 depletion and Message Framing 13 Typical Drinking Intentions a Function of Typical Drinks, Ego- 120 depletion and Message Framing 14 Correlation and Descriptive Statistics: Study 2:Theory of 121 Reactance 15 Study 2: Message Rating as a Function of Framing, Statistical 122 Information and Drinks per week. x 16 Study 2: Message Rating as a Function of Framing, Statistical 123 Information and Peak Drinks 17 Study 2: Message Rating as a Function of Framing, Statistical 124 Information and Typical Drinks 18 Study 2: Weekly Drinking Intention as a Function of Framing, 125 Statistical Information and Drinks per week 19 Weekly Drinking Intention as a Function of Framing, Statistical 126 Information and Peak Drinks 20 Study 2: Typical Drinking Intention as a Function of Framing, 127 Statistical Information and Typical Drinks 21 Message Rating as a Function of Statistical Information, 128 Message Framing, Self-esteem and Instability of Self-esteem, and Drinks per week 22 Message Rating as a Function of Message Framing, Self-esteem 129 and Instability of Self-esteem, with Statistical Information and Drinks per week controlled 23 Message Rating as a Function of Message Framing, Self-esteem 130 and Instability of Self-esteem, with Statistical Information and Drinks per week controlled (Continued) 24 Message Rating as a Function of Statistical Information, 131 Message Framing, Self-esteem and Instability of Self-esteem, with Peak Drinks controlled 25 Message Rating as a Function of Message Framing, Self-esteem 132 and Instability of Self-esteem, with Statistical Information and Peak Drinks controlled xi 26 Message Rating as a Function of Message Framing, Self-esteem 133 and Instability of Self-esteem, with Statistical Information and Peak Drinks controlled (Continued) 27 Message Rating as a Function of Statistical Information, 134 Message Framing, Self-esteem and Instability of Self-esteem, with Typical Drinks controlled 28 Message Rating as a Function of Message Framing, Self-esteem 135 and Instability of Self-esteem, with Statistical Information and Typical Drinks controlled 29 Message Rating as a Function of Message Framing, Self-esteem 136 and Instability of Self-esteem, with Statistical Information and Typical Drinks controlled (Continued) 30 Weekly Drinking Intention as a Function of Statistical 137 Information, Message Framing, Self-esteem and Instability of Self-esteem, with Drinks per week controlled 31 Weekly Drinking Intention as a Function of Message Framing, 138 Self-esteem and Instability of Self-esteem, with Statistical Information and Drinks per week controlled 32 Weekly Drinking Intention as a Function of Message Framing, 139 Self-esteem and Instability of Self-esteem, with Statistical Information and Drinks per week controlled (Continued) 33 Weekly Drinking Intention as a Function of Statistical 140 Information, Message Framing, Self-esteem and Instability of Self-esteem, with Peak Drinks controlled 34 Weekly Drinking Intention as a Function of Message Framing, 141 Self-esteem and Instability of Self-esteem, with Statistical Information and Peak Drinks controlled xii 35 Weekly Drinking Intention as a Function of Message Framing, 142 Self-esteem and Instability of Self-esteem, with Statistical Information and Peak