Lehrstuhl für Restaurierung The Decorative Architectural Surfaces of Petra May Shaer Vollständiger Abdruck der von der Fakultät für Architektur der Technischen Universität München zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades eines Doktors der Philosophie genehmigten Dissertation. Vorsitzender: Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. W. Koenigs Prüfer der Dissertation: 1. Univ.-Prof. E. Emmerling 2. Prof. Dr.-phil. R. Gebhard Universität Regensburg Die Dissertation wurde am 05.10.2004 bei der Technischen Universität München eingereicht und durch die Fakultät für Architektur am 03.03.2005 angenommen The Decorative Architectural Surfaces of Petra May Shaer A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements of the Technische Universität München for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy March 2003 Technische Universität München “ … the outside parts of the site being precipitous and sheer, and the inside parts having springs in abundance, both for domestic purposes and for watering gardens.” (Strabo XVI.iv.21) 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements 5 Bibliographic Abbreviations 6 Glossary of Architectural Terms 7 Chronology of Jordan 8 Abstract 9 Abstract (German) 11 1. Introduction 13 1.1 Background 13 1.2 Purpose and scope of Investigation 14 1.3 Methodology of the Study 14 2. Sampling of the Material and Methods of Analysis 15 2.1 Sampling and Sample Preparation 15 2.2 Methods of Analysis 16 2.2.1 Optical Microscopy 17 2.2.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy with energy 17 Dispersive X-ray Analysis (SEM/EDX) 2.2.3 X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry 17 2.2.4 X-ray Diffraction 18 2.2.5 FT-IR Spectrometry 18 2.2.6 Gas Chromatography and Mass 18 Spectrometry (GC-MS) 2.2.7 Binder/Aggregates Ratio Measurement 19 2.2.8 Grain Size Distribution/Sieve Analysis 19 2.2.9 Thin Sections 19 3. Ancient Decorative Plastering and Painting 20 3.1 Introduction 20 3.2 Ancient Plaster and Stucco 21 3.2.1 Introduction 21 3.2.2 Techniques of Plaster Application 21 3.2.3 Ancient Plasters 22 3.3 Ancient Painting 25 3.3.1 Introduction 25 3.3.2 Techniques of Ancient Painting 26 3.3.3 Ancient Pigments 29 3.4 Ancient Styles of Painting 48 3.4.1 Colour and Meaning 48 3.4.2 Aspects of Painting Styles of the Classical 52 World 4. The Site: Petra 57 4.1 An Ancient Capital 57 4.2 The Architecture 59 4.3 Decorative Plaster and Stucco 63 4.4 Weathering and State of Preservation of the Monuments 70 5. The Decorative Architectural Surfaces of Petra 72 5.1 Rock Carved Tomb Façades 72 5.1.1 Introduction 72 5.1.2 Tomb 633-Turkmaniyya 73 5.1.3 Tomb 826 80 5.1.4 Other Façades 88 3 5.2 Rock Carved Chambers 90 5.2.1 Introduction 90 5.2.2 Biclinium and Painted Room in 91 Siq el-Bared (No.849) 5.2.3 Rooms in Wadi as-Siyyagh 98 5.2.4 House Opposite Theatre (No.786) 106 5.2.5 Wadi al-Farasa Triclinium (No. 235) 108 5.3 Freestanding Monuments 110 5.3.1 Introduction 110 5.3.2 Petra Great Temple 111 5.3.3 Qasr el-Bint (No. 403) 119 5.3.4 Temple of the Winged Lions (No. 423) 125 5.3.5 Staircase 129 5.3.6 Main Theatre (No. 161) 133 6. Conclusions: Nabataean Rendering and Painting 136 6.1 Introduction 136 6.2 Nabataean Paints and Pigments 140 6.3 Materials and Methods in the Application of Renders 142 6.4 Provenance of the Materials 145 6.5 Concluding Remarks 152 7. Petra: Site Conservation 155 7.1 Introduction 155 7.2 Weathering and Conservation 158 8. Appendices 162 8.1 List of the Analyzed Samples 162 8.2 X-ray Diffraction, X-ray Fluorescence, FT-IR 167 Spectrometry and GC-MS Analysis 8.3 Binder/aggregate Ratio Measurement and Grain 170 Size Distribution 8.4 Microscopic Observations, Scanning Electron Microscopy 182 and Thin Sections 9. Bibliographic References 256 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study was conducted with the support of GTZ (German Technical cooperation), through the Petra Stone Preservation project. In that regard, I am very grateful to Dr. Helge Fischer for his support and encouragement throughout. I would like to extend my sincere gratitude to Prof. Erwin Emmerling for his continuous advice and support in carrying out the research, and for allowing me to use the facilities at the Lehrstuhl für Restaurierung, Kunsttechnologie und Konservierungswissenschaft. I would also like to thank Prof. Dr. Wolfgang Hiller and Rupert Stadler from the Faculty of Chemistry at the Technische Universität München for use of the scanning electron microscope at the faculty and for their assistance and advice. From the Bavarian State Department of Historical Monuments, I wish to thank Prof. Dr. Rolf Snethlage for letting me use the facilities at the department and his much appreciated support, Vojislaw Tucic for conducting x-ray diffraction analysis and his valuable interpretations, Christian Gruber for conducting FT-IR analysis, and for Mathias Kocher, Jürgen Pursche and Edith Woznik for their continuous help and generous advice. I wish also to thank Marianne Werner for assistance in conducting analysis at the scanning electron microscope at the Geology Department of Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU). Further support in the scientific analysis was provided by the Building Materials Section at the Getty Conservation Institute. Many thanks go to David Carson and Stefan Simon for ESEM analysis, Alice Ormsbee for x-ray diffraction analysis, Joy Keeney and Michael Schilling for binding media analysis and Francesca Casadio and Urs Mueller for various analyses conducted. For assistance in fieldwork, sample collection and preparation, and in providing relevant literature, I wish to thank Hussein al-Sababha, Brigitta Hofer; Ralf Kilian and Nayef Haddad. Thanks also go to Dr. Fawwaz al-Khreysheh, Suleiman Farajat and Mohammad Shobaki from the Department of Antiquities, and to Prof. Martha Joukowsky for providing me with samples from the Great Temple excavation. I am also grateful to Dr. Pierre Bikai, Humi Ayoubi and Fatma Marii for their assistance in using the ACOR library. My sincere thanks go to the team of the Petra Stone Preservation Project who, throughout my work with the project, provided support, advice and valuable knowledge that influenced this research in many ways, either directly or indirectly. In that regard, I wish to thank Dr. Talal Akasheh, Dr. Ziad al-Saad; Dr. Helge Fischer, Egon Kaiser, Dr. Bilal Khrisat; Dr. Michael Kühlenthal, Fatma Marii, Nicole Schenkel, Dr. Thomas Urban and Wanja Wedekind. I am greatly indebted to Dr. Stefan Simon for his invaluable advice and support throughout the course of this study. Finally, my deep appreciation goes to my family who has always been very supportive, helpful and encouraging. 5 BIBLIOGRAPHIC ABBREVIATIONS ADAJ Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan BA Biblical Archaeologist BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research PEQ Palestine Exploration Quarterly QDAP Quarterly of the Department of Antiquities of Palestine RB Revue Biblique SHAJ Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan 6 GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS Anta: a Pilaster forming the front end of the side wall of a temple. When there are columns between them they are said to be in antis. Arch: curved structure, originally freestanding and formed by voussoirs to bear weight across an entrance, but also in the same form rock cut. Architrave: lowest member below the frieze and cornice of the classical entablature. Ashlar Masonry: large squared rectangular stones laid in horizontal courses. Bevelled Ovolo: a moulding with a flat oblique profile receding downwards. Biclinium: room with benches along two sides on which to recline when dining. Cavetto: concave moulding of quarter round profile. Cavetto Cornice: large concave moulding of quarter round profile. Usually above a fascia and torus in “Egyptian Cavetto Cornice”. Cella: central chamber of a temple. Column: free standing vertical support with circular cross section. Cornice: the upper member, above the architrave and frieze, of a classical entablature. Crowsteps: crenellations with stepped sides, used on Nabataean tombs. Dentil Elements: the moulding of rectangular or square section at Petra used in the position in which dentils would normally be expected to occur. Dentils: small rectangular blocks, usually carved at the base of a cornice. Egg and Tongue: decoration on an ovolo moulding consisting of egg shapes with a small wedge between them. Entablature: a horizontal element of an architectural order consisting of an architrave, frieze and cornice, carried by vertical supports. Façade: front face of a building. Fascia: long large flat band. Loculus: long recess cut in tomb chambers for placing the body in, sometimes with shelves, or with one or more graves carved into the floor. Metope: plain or decorated panel between triglyphs. Moulding: continuous profile or contour of a definite shape given to the edge of an architectural member. Pediment: the part (originally triangular in shape) crowning the front of a building, especially the portico. Pier: free standing vertical support with square or rectangular, rather than semi- circular, cross section. Pilaster: engaged vertical support with rectangular rather, than semi circular cross section. Pronaos: vestibule or porch of a temple. Segmental Arch: an arch with the shape of a segment of a circle or ellipse, rather than a semi circle. Segmental Pediment: a pediment with a circular or elliptical shape. Taenia: the flat band projecting along the top of a Doric architrave. Tholos: circular columnar structure. Torus: large convex moulding of half round profile. Triclinium: room with benched around three sides, on which to recline while dining. Triglyph: grooved panel