Turkana livelihood strategies and adaptation to drought in Kenya Richard Otieno Juma A thesis submitted to the Victoria University of Wellington in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Development Studies VICTORIA UNIVERSITY OF WELLINGTON 2009 Dedicated to the Turkana people ii Abstract Drought and famine in Sub-Saharan Africa are among the leading contributory causes of vulnerability in pastoral communities. Therefore, understanding pastoral vulnerability to drought and famine, and their indigenous adaptive strategies, is critical for mitigation planning. This study draws on the experience of Turkana pastoralists living in the Turkana District in the arid zone of north-western Kenya, an area with a long history of food insecurity. The study looks at the problem of drought and famine from a historical perspective in order to bring into context contemporary adaptive strategies. Special attention is focused on understanding the inherent potential of the Turkana people to change their own livelihoods within their respective social and economic milieu in response to drought and famine, with a view to understanding the implications of these indigenous responses to adapt to drought in this region in the future. Specifically, the study analyses the types of social networks which were activated during the 2005-2006 drought and famine which hence, over time have shaped the adaptation of the Turkana people’s livelihood strategies. The sustainable livelihood approach was deemed appropriate to the focus of this research in that it provided the framework for an indepth exploration of how Turkana people survive during crises. The fieldwork was carried out for six months between February and July 2007. A sample of 80 household heads and eight key informants were randomly selected. Documentary review, observation and informal interviews, key informant interviews, a household survey, and case histories and mapping were used to obtain data. Data were analysed both qualitatively and quantitatively. The major findings were: firstly, that Turkana people apply a perceptual filter to their crises before finding a relevant livelihood strategy; secondly, that the Turkana possess a iii repertoire of adaptive strategies which stand out in relief and draw on social networks as an insurance system. The dominant modes of networks identified during the 2005-2006 drought and famine consisted of trading, reciprocity, migration, splitting families and the search for allies. For example, families were split with some members sent away to relatives, friends, and school in order to ease the consumption pressure on available household food resources. The process thus helped to slough off population from the pastoral sector. The allies sought out included traders, kinsmen, affine, bond friends, neighbours and school; and thirdly, that adaptability in the Turkana district is a function of the physical, social, and economic environment. For instance, the Ngibelai, who inhabited a more hostile and isolated rural environment suffered more severely, while the Ngisonyoka of the richer urban environment escaped almost unscathed since their adaptive strategies aimed at augmenting existing domestic food supplies by looking for non-pastoral food sources. Finally, the study concludes that, since the drought and famine problem in the Turkana District is an indication of what might become a wider problem throughout Kenya; the challenge for the Turkana people and the Kenyan government is to plan for a sustainable adaptive strategy based on indigenous initiatives. Key words: Drought, famine, Turkana, livelihood strategies, adaptive strategies, social networks. iv Acknowledgement This work was carried out in the School of Geography, Environment and Earth Sciences of Victoria University of Wellington. However, it would never have been completed without the support and assistance of many dedicated individuals and some organisations both inside and outside the School, not all of whom can be mentioned here. First of all, I would like to acknowledge my deepest sense of both personal and professional gratitude to my primary supervisor, Professor John Overton, who has supervised this PhD thesis with invaluable enthusiasm. His valuable advice and insightful criticism over the whole thesis have been of the utmost significance in the course of my study. Similarly, without his encouragement, I would have found it very difficult to move forward. My thanks are due also for his countless readings of the manuscript over and again over the nights and weekends during the past three years. I am also incredibly appreciative to my co-supervisor, Associate Professor John McKinnon, for inspiration and professional guidance both while in the field and in the writing process. I have learnt more from him than can ever be contained in this thesis. Special thanks to Professor Vijay Naidu, and Dr. Diane O’Rourke without whom I would never have begun this project. It was their encouragement that originally inspired me to undertake scientific research. This research has been funded by NZAID. I am deeply grateful for their generous support. I acknowledge my organization Jomo Kenyatta University which gave me study leave to undertake this research. I would like to thank the Turkana pastoralists of Morulem and Lokichar villages in the Turkana District. Despite the fact that they make a living under extreme circumstances, where drought, famine, and lack of v resources constrain their livelihoods, they welcomed and shared their information with me. I am forever indebted to all of them. I would like to thank all members of academic staff, and non-teaching staff at the School of Geography, Environment and Earth Science for providing an invigorating academic and social setting. Special thanks to my PhD colleagues especially my “fellow combatants” Alok, Shukri, and Dona. Thanks also go to audiences who attended my seminar, and anonymous reviewers of articles laying the foundation of this thesis. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my family especially my wife Quin, and children, Beverly, Maxine and Tessie whose love, unfailing encouragement, understanding, continuing support and prayers have always been a sort of spiritual dynamics propelling me through every difficult moment during my study. Things were not always easy and certain obstacles prevented us from doing what we would have done. Finally, my years of childhood and adolescence prepared me well for what I have been able to achieve here. I cannot adequately express my gratitude to my parents Stephen Juma and Mary Adhiambo for their unstinting kindness, love, support, encouragements, help, and care at every turn of the road. It was they who cultivated in me the gifts that have enabled me to bring this work to completion. I would also like to thank my brothers Laurence Juma and Benard Ochieng, and sister Milka Akinyi for their moral and practical support. vi Table of contents Abstract ............................................................................................ iii Acknowledgement ............................................................................. v Table of contents............................................................................... vii List of figures .................................................................................... xii List of tables ..................................................................................... xiv CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION............................................................. 1 1.1 Historical background to drought and famine in pastoral lands in sub-Saharan Africa ...................................... 1 1.2 The drought problem – a concern for African pastoralists ............ 6 1.3 Research problem: critical gap in response to drought and famine in the Turkana District, Kenya ................. 10 1.4 Social networks and rural livelihoods .......................................... 21 1.5 Social networks and pastoral livelihoods...................................... 23 1.6 Justification of the study............................................................. 31 1.7 Organization of the study ............................................................ 32 1.8 Chapter summary and hypotheses .............................................. 33 CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY ............... 35 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................ 35 2.2 Emergence of the sustainable livelihoods approach...................... 37 2.2.1 Principles and concepts of sustainable livelihoods approach applicable to this study.............................................. 39 2.2.2 Explaining the sustainable livelihoods approach framework ................................................................. 44 2.2.3 Critique to sustainable livelihoods approach framework ................................................................ 45 2.3 Symbolic interaction theory and adjustments .............................. 47 2.4 Social exchange theory ................................................................ 49 2.5 Turkana pastoralists’ adjustment scheme vii during crises – a conceptual framework......................................... 51 2.6 Chapter summary ........................................................................ 56 CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODS ................................................... 58 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................