The University of Manchester Research The SAVAK and the Cold War: Counter-Intelligence and Foreign Intelligence (1957-1968) Link to publication record in Manchester Research Explorer Citation for published version (APA): Moravej, K. (2011). The SAVAK and the Cold War: Counter-Intelligence and Foreign Intelligence (1957-1968). University of Manchester. Citing this paper Please note that where the full-text provided on Manchester Research Explorer is the Author Accepted Manuscript or Proof version this may differ from the final Published version. If citing, it is advised that you check and use the publisher's definitive version. General rights Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the Research Explorer are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. 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Sep. 2021 THE SAVAK AND THE COLD WAR: COUNTER‐INTELLIGENCE AND FOREIGN INTELLIGENCE (1957‐1968) A thesis submitted to the University of Manchester for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Humanities 2011 KAVEH MORAVEJ SCHOOL OF LANGUAGES, LINGUISITICS AND CULTURES/Middle Eastern Studies 2 CONTENTS 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 8 1.1 Hypothesis ............................................................................................................... 8 1.1.1 Reasons for the Establishment of Foreign Intelligence and Counter-Intelligence Capabilities ........................................................................ 11 1.1.2 Established Structures and Operational Methods ........................... 11 1.1.3 Choice of Targets ........................................................................................ 12 1.1.4 The SAVAK and Policy-Making ............................................................... 13 1.2 Literature Review and Discussion of Sources .......................................... 15 1.3 Methodology ......................................................................................................... 23 1.4 Theoretical Framework ..................................................................................... 26 1.4.1 What is ‘intelligence’? ................................................................................ 27 1.4.2 Covert Action: A definition ...................................................................... 33 1.4.3 Two Key Analytical Features: Classification and Organisational Security ......................................................................................................................... 35 2 Background: The Cold War Context in Iran’s relations with the Soviet Union and Iraq ............................................................................................................................................. 38 2.1 Soviet – Iranian relations ................................................................................ 38 2.2 Iran-Iraq relations .............................................................................................. 54 3 Background and Circumstances of the Creation of an Iranian Foreign Intelligence and Counter-Intelligence Capability ............................................................ 65 3.1 Historical overviewe .......................................................................................... 65 3.2 The Cold War context ....................................................................................... 68 3.3 The Soviet Union and the Tudeh Party ...................................................... 71 3 3.4 The SAVAK’s establishment ............................................................................ 74 4 Administrative Structure and Operational Methods of the SAVAK’s Foreign Intelligence and Counter-Intelligence Directorates ................................... 77 4.1 The Foreign Intelligence Directorates ........................................................ 78 4.2 Counter-Intelligence .......................................................................................... 86 5 Case Study A: The Iran-Soviet Rapprochement .................................................... 95 5.1 Directorate 8: Unease and Vigilance Amidst an Iran-Soviet Rapprochement .............................................................................................................. 95 5.1.1 Diplomatic and Political Intelligence .................................................... 95 5.1.2 Open Source Intelligence ....................................................................... 106 5.1.3 Public Opinion ............................................................................................. 108 5.1.4 Directorate 8 and US Intelligence ...................................................... 111 5.2 Directorate 8: Continued Mistrust (1964-1969) .................................. 112 5.2.1 Impact of the New Brezhnev-Kosygin Leadership in the USSR .... .......................................................................................................................... 112 5.2.2 Soviet Human Intelligence Activities ................................................. 114 5.2.3 Surveillance ................................................................................................. 117 5.2.4 Iranian-Soviet Border .............................................................................. 120 5.2.5 The Trading and Business Community ............................................. 126 5.2.6 Industry ......................................................................................................... 128 6 Case Study B: Iraq 1958-1968 ......................................................................................... 131 6.1 1958-1963: Foreign Intelligence on the Qasim Republic ................. 131 6.1.1 Iraq as an Operational Base for Iranian Communists ................ 131 6.1.2 SAVAK Attempts at Undermining the Qasim Government ....... 135 4 6.1.3 Foreign Intelligence Measures Against Iraqi Diplomats in Tehran ......................................................................................................................... 147 6.2 1963-1968: Continued Expansion of Capabilities ................................ 149 6.2.1 The SAVAK’s Assessment of the Outcome of the 1963 Coup .. 149 6.2.2 The Consequences of the Persecution of Iraq’s Communists .. 151 6.2.3 Observing Pan-Arabism and monitoring Iraq’s relations with Nasser in an unstable Iraq under Abdul Salam Arif .................................. 154 6.3 Coinciding Interests and a Strengthening Intelligence Relationship: The SAVAK and MOSSAD Cooperating ON Iraq .............................................. 166 6.4 Abdul Rahman Arif ........................................................................................... 169 7 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................... 173 7.1 Reasons for Establishment ............................................................................ 173 7.2 Structures and Operational Methods ........................................................ 177 7.2.1 Collection Methods .................................................................................... 177 7.2.2 Covert Action .............................................................................................. 180 7.2.3 Prioritisation ................................................................................................ 181 7.3 The Choice of Targets for the Savak’s Counter-intelligence and Foreign Intelligence Activities ................................................................................ 182 7.4 Policy-making ..................................................................................................... 183 7.4.1 Analysis and Cold War Thinking .......................................................... 185 8 Bibliography ...................................................................................................................................... 190 Words: 75,489 5 THE SAVAK AND THE COLD WAR: COUNTER‐INTELLIGENCEAND FOREIGN INTELLIGENCE (1957‐1968) by Kaveh Moravej Submitted to the University of Manchester for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2011 ABSTRACT This research investigates Iran’s geopolitical importance in the context of the Cold War in the years 1957-1968 that made it a key target for Soviet intelligence and a crucial intelligence battleground with all states that held an interest in Iran. For Iran and the non-Soviet Bloc powers, Iran’s newly established intelligence and national security organisation (SAVAK) had become an entity whose counter-intelligence capabilities were crucial in curtailing the activities of Soviet and Soviet-aligned intelligence officers within Iran. The intelligence agencies of the Soviet Union, the KGB and GRU, were highly active within Iran in both seeking to gather intelligence and to undermine the Pahlavi regime and it was left to the SAVAK’s counter-intelligence directorate to pursue the difficult task