Turkish Journal of Earth Sciences Turkish J Earth Sci (2016) 25: 573-591 http://journals.tubitak.gov.tr/earth/ © TÜBİTAK Research Article doi:10.3906/yer-1512-8 Geochemical characterization and palynological studies of some Agbada Formation deposits of the Niger Delta basin: implications for paleodepositional environments 1 1, 1 Olajide Femi ADEBAYO , Segun Ajayi AKINYEMI *, Henry Yemagu MADUKWE , 2 1 Adeyinka Oluyemi ATURAMU , Adebayo Olufemi OJO 1 Department of Geology, Ekiti State University, Ado Ekiti, Nigeria 2 Department of Geology, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK Received: 14.12.2015 Accepted/Published Online: 06.09.2016 Final Version: 01.12.2016 Abstract: Forty-two ditch cutting samples of the KR-1 offshore well from depths of 9660 ft to 10,920 ft composited at 90-ft intervals were subjected to sedimentological, micropaleontological, and geochemical analyses using standard procedures and the laser ablation- induced coupled plasma mass spectrometry technique, respectively. Sedimentological analysis revealed the presence of glauconites and the rare occurrence of framboidal pyrites, indicative of deposition in a slightly anoxic marine environment. Palynomorph percentage distribution shows that there are more terrestrially derived miospores (dominated by Zonocostites ramonae (Rhizophora spp.), Psilatricolporites crassus (Tabernaemontana crassa), Acrotichum aureum, and Laevigatosporites sp.) than marine phytoplanktons. Rare occurrence of Globoquadrina venezuelana, Globigerinoides promordius, and Globigerina sp. denotes an Early Miocene age and proximal shelf. These indicate that the main environment of deposition in the KR-1 well is coastal to marginal marine consisting of coastal deltaic- inner neritic, made up of tidal channel and shoreface deposits. Geochemical results show that the average concentrations of considered rare earth elements are less than their concentrations in world average shale. Trace metal ratios (such as Th/Cr, Cr/Th, Th/Co, and Cr/ Ni) suggest that the investigated sediments were derived from felsic source rocks. Rare earth element patterns (such as La/Yb, Gd/Yb, La/Sm, and Eu/Eu) and Th data established the felsic composition of the source rocks. Ratios of U/Th, Ni/Co, Cu/Zn, and V/Sc suggest a well-oxygenated bottom water condition. Estimated europium and cerium anomalies of the studied samples suggest an oxidizing environment of deposition. Nonetheless, the ratios of V/Cr suggest a range of environmental conditions. Moreover, ratios of V/(V+Ni) suggest the rare occurrence of suboxic to anoxic environments of deposition. Key words: Sedimentology, palynomorphs, traces elements, rare earth element, environment of deposition, Niger Delta, Nigeria 1. Introduction played an important role in the exploration of oil and The Niger Delta basin is one of the sedimentary basins gas in the Niger Delta basin. Microfossils were employed in Nigeria (Figure 1). It is an important basin because among other things to reconstruct the paleoenvironment it contains large hydrocarbon resources. This makes of the studied sections. This is important because different Nigeria the most prolific oil producer in Sub-Saharan depositional settings imply different reservoir qualities Africa, ranking as the third largest producer of crude in terms of architecture, connectivity, heterogeneity, and oil in Africa and the tenth largest in the world. Nigeria’s porosity-permeability characteristics (Simmons et al., economy is predominantly dependent on its oil sector; 1999). oil supplies 95% of Nigeria’s foreign exchange earnings Trace element abundances in sedimentary rocks and 80% of its budgetary revenues (Olayiwola, 1987; have added significantly to our understanding of crustal Adenugba and Dipo, 2013). This petroliferous nature has evolution with rare earth element (REE) patterns and made the basin, for many years, the subject of continuous, Th being particularly useful in determining provenance consistent, and extensive geologic investigations both (Ganai and Rashid, 2015). The geochemical behavior for academic and economic purposes (Adebayo, 2011). of trace elements in modern organic-rich, fine-grained Intensive exploration and exploitation of hydrocarbon in sedimentary rocks (i.e. shales) and anoxic basins has the basin has been ongoing since the early 1960s due to the often been documented to determine paleoenvironmental discovery of oil in commercial quantity in the Oloibiri-1 conditions of deposition (Brumsack, 1989; Calvert and well in 1956 (Nwajide and Reijers, 1996). Biostratigraphy Pedersen, 1993; Warning and Brumsack, 2000; Algeo * Correspondence: [email protected] 573 ADEBAYO et al. / Turkish J Earth Sci Figure 1. Geological map of the Niger Delta (Weber and Daukoru, 1975). and Maynard, 2004). Redox-sensitive trace element 2. The geologic setting of the basin (TE) concentrations or ratios are among the main The present-day Niger Delta Complex is situated on the extensively used indicators of redox conditions in continental margin of the Gulf of Guinea in the southern modern and ancient sedimentary deposits (e.g., Calvert part of Nigeria. It lies between longitudes 4 °E and 8.8 °E and Pedersen, 1993; Jones and Manning, 1994; Crusius and latitudes 3 °N and 6 °N (Figure 1).The onshore portion et al., 1996; Dean et al., 1997, 1999; Yarincik et al., of the basin is delineated by the geology of southern 2000; Morford et al., 2001; Pailler et al., 2002; Algeo Nigeria and southwestern Cameroon. It is bounded in and Maynard, 2004). Enrichments of redox-sensitive the north by outcrops of the Anambra Basin and the elements replicate the depositional environment of Abakaliki Anticlinorium, and delimited in the west by the ancient organic carbon-rich sediments and sedimentary Benin Flank, a northeast-southwest trending hinge line rocks as well and can consequently be used to reveal south of the West African basement massif. The Calabar the likely paleodepositional conditions leading to their Flank, a hinge line bordering the Oban massif, defines the formation (Brumsack, 1980, 1986; Hatch and Leventhal, northeastern boundary. The offshore boundary of the basin 1992; Piper, 1994). The degree of enrichment/depletion is defined by the Cameroon volcanic line to the east and is usually based on the element/Al ratio in a sample, the eastern boundary of the Dahomey Basin (the eastern- calculated relative to the respective element/Al ratio of most West African transform-fault passive margin) to a common standard material, e.g., average marine shale the west. The evolution of the delta is controlled by pre- (Turekian and Wedepohl, 1961). The purpose of this and synsedimentary tectonics as described by Evamy et paper is to interpret the paleoenvironmental changes al. (1978), Ejedawe (1981), Knox and Omatsola (1987), during the deposition of the sediments in the studied and Stacher (1995). It is a large arcuate delta covering an section of the Niger Delta basin. To achieve the objective, a area of about 300,000 km2 (Kulke, 1995), with a sediment multidisciplinary approach combining sedimentological volume of 500,000 km3 (Hospers, 1965) and a sedimentary features and palynological and geochemical analyses was thickness of over 10 km in the basin depocenter (Kaplan employed. et al., 1994). 574 ADEBAYO et al. / Turkish J Earth Sci The evolution of the basin has been linked to that of materials were separated from the organic ones using a larger sedimentary complex called the Benue-Abakaliki ZnCl2 of specific gravity 2.0. Slides were mounted using Trough. The trough, a NE-SW trending aborted rift basin Norland adhesive mounting medium and dried under with folded sedimentary fill, runs obliquely across Nigeria UV light. One slide per sample was analyzed under the (Figure 1). The Niger Delta basin is actually the youngest optical microscope and the photomicrographs of well- and the southernmost subbasin in the trough (Murat, preserved palynomorph specimens were taken using an 1972; Reijers et al., 1997). Olympus CH30 transmitted light microscope (Model The evolution of the trough, which began in the CH30RF200) with an attached camera. Palynomorph Cretaceous, during the opening of the South Atlantic, identifications were done using the works of Germeraad et led to the separation of the African and South American al. (1968) and Evamy et al. (1978) (i.e. Shell Oil Company plates. The tectonic framework of the continental Scheme, 1978). The data were plotted using StrataBugs margin along the western coast of Africa is controlled by software at 1:5000 scale with depth on the y-axis and the Cretaceous fracture zones expressed as trenches and ridges identified taxa on the x-axis. in the deep Atlantic. The fracture zone ridges subdivided 3.3. Foraminiferal preparation the margin into individual basins and, in Nigeria, form Twenty-five grams of each sample was processed for their the boundary faults of the Cretaceous Benue-Abakaliki foraminiferal content using the standard preparation Trough, which cuts far into the West African Shield. techniques. The weighed samples were soaked in kerosene The rifting greatly diminished in the Late Cretaceous in and left overnight to disaggregate, followed by soaking in the Niger Delta region (Ako et al., 2004). A well section detergent solution overnight. The disaggregated samples through the Niger Delta basin generally displays three vertical lithostratigraphic subdivisions, namely a prodelta were then washed-sieved under running tap water over lithofacies, a delta front lithofacies, and upper delta