International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Volume 29 | Issue 1 Article 9 1-1-2010 Transpersonal and Other Models of Spiritual Development Harris Friedman Walden University Stanley Krippner Saybrook University Linda Riebel Saybrook University Chad Johnson University of Oklahoma Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.ciis.edu/ijts-transpersonalstudies Part of the Philosophy Commons, Psychology Commons, and the Religion Commons Recommended Citation Friedman, H., Krippner, S., Riebel, L., & Johnson, C. (2010). Friedman, H., Krippner, S., Riebel, L., & Johnson, C. (2010). Transpersonal and other models of spiritual development. International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 29(1), 79–94.. International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 29 (1). http://dx.doi.org/10.24972/ijts.2010.29.1.79 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 4.0 License. This Special Topic Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Journals and Newsletters at Digital Commons @ CIIS. It has been accepted for inclusion in International Journal of Transpersonal Studies by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ CIIS. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Transpersonal and Other Models of Spiritual Development1 Harris Friedman Stanley Krippner Walden University Saybrook University Minneapolis, MN, USA San Francisco, CA, USA Linda Riebel Chad Johnson Saybrook University University of Oklahoma San Francisco, CA, USA Norman, OK, USA This chapter focuses on exploring various models of spiritual development. It first addresses philosophical dilemmas underpinning the concept of spiritual development by questioning whether these can be addressed without metaphysical assumptions embedded in religious worldviews and thus understood in any consensual way across different historical and cultural contexts. Traditional models of spiritual development are then reviewed, drawing from indigenous, Eastern, and Western cultures. Integrative-philosophical and scientific models, including those from the psychology of religion, transpersonal psychology, and neurobiology, are then presented. The chapter concludes by noting the complexities involved in understanding spiritual development accompanied by suggestions on future directions for these models by highlighting their commonalities and differences and by providing some evaluative perspectives for thinking critically about them. Keywords: spiritual development, transpersonal, religious psychology, neurobiology n the Biblical book of Genesis, Jacob, one of the pare all of the many approaches to spiritual development patriarchs of Judaism, dreamed that he saw a ladder stemming from the myriad of religious traditions, each of that reached from earth to heaven, on which angels which may contain more than one model of spiritual de- Iwere ascending and descending. Such vertical models, velopment. Instead, we sample a few models we consider which imply ascending to a higher or descending to representative from indigenous, Eastern, and Western a lower realm, have been frequently used to describe cultures. Then we discuss philosophical models of spiri- spiritual development. Implicit in all vertical models is tual development and end with scientific approaches. We a hierarchical belief that some stages of development, hope to provoke thought about these models by high- or rungs on the ladder, are higher or lower than others. lighting their commonalities and differences, as well as Other models of spiritual development avoid value- by providing some evaluative perspectives for thinking laden imagery. For example, spiritual development critically about them. In light of the many variant uses can be seen as going in many directions, which makes of the three key terms in our title, spirituality, model, and comparing and ranking various states unnecessary development are defined in some detail below. (Ferrer, 2009). Spiritual development can also be Spirituality seen as expanding in a horizontal, rather than vertical, s a concept, spirituality has been increasingly differ- direction, such that there is no higher or lower, but Aentiated from religiosity (Bartoli, 2007). Religiosity only different patterns of expansiveness (Friedman, is now frequently seen as pertaining to an organized 1983). In this chapter, we attempt to describe these system of beliefs about the sacred, along with rituals, and several other models of spiritual development. rules, and other requirements of a belief system en- It is beyond the scope of a chapter to set forth and com- dorsed by a group (Fuller, 2001; Pargament, 1997). Such ModelsInternational of Spiritual Journal Development of Transpersonal Studies, 29(1), 2010,International pp. 79-94 Journal of Transpersonal Studies 79 connotations have implicit social and cultural mean- experiential/phenomenological, existential well-being, ings, referring to something external to the individual paranormal beliefs, and religiousness. MacDonald (although these may be internalized). also identified several outlying factors that did not fit Religious institutions, while supporting positive well with his five-factor model (e.g., self-expansiveness; values such as community and life-structuring rituals, Friedman, 1983). Lately, spirituality has been somewhat tend to be flawed in one major way: certainty about commodified based on its presumed tangible benefits, the truths of one’s own religion sometimes leads people such as higher levels of mental and physical health to become intolerant. Taken to extremes, this leads to (Elmer, MacDonald, & Friedman, 2003; Gartner, dire consequences, such as genocides (Harris, 2004). 1996). However, spirituality can also be related to Superstition, sexism, dogmatism, and fanaticism appear harmful occurrences, such as psychopathology (Johnson in many religions, including indigenous, Eastern, and & Friedman, 2008), poor health (Magyar-Russell & Western, and crusades, genocides, jihads, and holy wars Pargament, 2006), vulnerability to the seduction of have led many in the West to reject formal religion, cults, neglect of practical concerns, and exploitation of propelling books voicing antireligious sentiments to followers (Kornfield, 1993). Climbing Jacob’s ladder best-seller status (e.g., Dawkins, 2006; Dennett, 2006). of spiritual development can lead to many outcomes, By contrast, spirituality is increasingly seen both ascending and descending—and some may not be as an inner process of connectedness with the sacred, a pleasant destinations. psychological process internal to the individual (Gallup One example of difficulties associated with & Jones, 2000; Sperry & Shafranske, 2005). Of course, spiritual development is conversion, the adoption of new there is significant overlap between the two terms, as religious beliefs that differ significantly from previous spirituality historically has been experienced through beliefs, which plays a crucial role in some people’s religion. But a person engaged in a religious group may spiritual development. This poses a real conundrum or may not have had spiritual experiences per se, and a regarding spiritual development. An adherent of the new person who has had spiritual experiences may or may not faith may view converts as advancing in development be part of a religious group (Friedman & Pappas, 2007). by discovering the “true” faith, while a member of the This distinction between spirituality and religiosity previous faith may see them as guilty of one of the apparently is growing more salient in modern industrial worst sins, apostasy. A convert takes on not only a cultures (Miller & Thoresen, 2003). new religious identity, but also a new set of values and Spirituality, even when distinguished from behaviors. Insofar as conversion is often part of spiritual religiosity, has been variously defined: that which development, it illustrates the relativism that seems “infuses human beings with inspiration (from in-‘spirit’), inherent in any model of spiritual development. creativity, and connection with others” (Fukuyama & The difficulties in assessing spiritual Sevig, 1999, p. 4), involves a “presence or absence of an development are illustrated by the case of Mother Mary individual’s focus on higher, broader, and deeper life Theresa of Calcutta who, in 1946, claimed that Jesus meanings that transcend ordinary existence” (Krippner Christ had spoken to her on a train trip to Darjeeling, & Welch, 1992, p. 122), and the “human quest for urging her to leave her teaching position in order to personal meaning and mutually fulfilling relationships work with the disadvantaged. How do we reconcile among people, the nonhuman environment, and for this with the discovery that she later lived for decades some, God” (Canda, 1988, p. 243), to name just a few. feeling abandoned by her God? Less than three months Spirituality has been viewed as cognitive or affective, before receiving the Nobel prize, she had written to a related to transcendence or to everyday life, to enhanced spiritual confidant, “The…emptiness is so great–that I ego development or regression to infantile states, and look and do not see–listen and do not hear” (van Biema, to devotion to diverse transformational paths (Porter, 2007, p. 35). Her published letters revealed that, except 1995). for one brief interlude, she had not felt the presence of Clearly, spirituality is a diffuse and multifaceted God for the last five decades of her life (Kolodiejchuk, construct. MacDonald (2000)