Notes Introduction 1.]. Guehenno, Journal des annees noires (1940-1944), Gallimard, 1947, p. 205. Quote brought to my attention by Jennifer Lefevre. 2. K. Reader, 'The Intellectuals: Notes towards a Comparative Study of Their Position in the Social Formations of France and Britain', Media, Culture and Society, 1982 (4), pp. 263-73, p. 266. 3. M. Leymarie, Les Intellectuels et Ia politique, Presses Universitaires de France (Collection Que sais-je?), 2001, p. 11. 4. J.-P. Sartre, 'Plaidoyer pour les intellectuels', in J.-P. Sartre, Situations VIII, Gallimard, 1972, p. 377. 5. For a recent study on female intellectuals, see N. Racine and M. Trebitsch, Intellectuelles. Du genre en histoire des intellectuels, Editions Complexe, 2004. 1. The Dreyfus Affair and the Birth of the 'Intellectuals' 1. E. Weber, France, Fin de Siecle, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1986, p. 66. 2. Ibid., p. 46. 3. At the end of 1871 Parisians opposed to the government of Adolphe Thiers elected a revolutionary council in Paris. Thiers fled to Versailles and subsequently organised a siege of the city in order to wrest control from the Communards. In May the Versailles troops entered Paris and at the end of the month the Commune was defeated. ln the bloody reprisals that followed some 18,000 Parisians died and almost 7,000 were deported. Communes were also crushed in other French cities and the repression cast a long shadow over relations between radicals and conservatives for years to come. 4. In 1815, after the fall of Napoleon, the monarchy was restored (Louis XVIII, 1815-25; Charles X, 1825-30). In July 1830, after three days of riots, Charles X was forced to abdicate and was replaced by Louis-Philippe whose july Monarchy lasted until 1848. Louis-Philippe was then forced to abdicate and, in February 1848, the Second Republic was proclaimed. There remained a strong current of support for a return to the monarchy in the early days of the Third Republic, but the intransigence of the Bourbon grandson of Charles X, the Comte de Chambord, ruled out any restoration at that juncture. 5. R. Tombs, France 1814-1914, Longman, 1996, p. 442. 6. General Georges Boulanger (1837-91) fought in the Franco-Prussian War and later became a passionate advocate of French revenge against Germany. He acted as a lightning conductor for public hostility to the Third Republic from across the political spectrum. He was elected many times to Parliament but could not take his seat until he was retired from the army in 1888. In 1889 it seemed likely that he would lead a coup against the Republic but this failed to materialise. 187 188 Notes, pp. 12-25 A warrant was issued for his arrest for treason and he fled to Belgium where he committed suicide two years later. 7. The Panama Canal Company had needed extra capital to meet unanticipated building costs which it raised by means of a special loan which was sup­ ported by politicians and newspapers. In 1889 the company went bankrupt leaving thousands of shareholders ruined. The involvement of politicians damaged both the reputation of the Republic and parliamentary democracy. 8. L. Poliakov, Histoire de l'antisemitisme, val. 2: L'Age de Ia science, Calmann-Lcvy, 1981, p. 291. 9. Sometimes written Bernard Lazare. 10. L. Blum, Souvenirs sur !'affaire, Gallimard, 1981, p. 39. 11. Z. Sternhell, La Droite revolutionnaire, Editions du Seuil (Collection Points Histoire), 1978, esp. pp. 177-214. 12. F. W. ]. Hemmings, Emile Zola, Oxford University Press, 1966, pp. 282-3. Thanks to Ian Birchall for this reference. 13. E. Zola, 'Pour les Juifs', in H. Mitterand (ed), Emile Zola, Oeuvres completes, Vol. 14, Cercle du Livre Precieux, 1970, pp. 779-84. 14. E. Zola, 'M. Scheurer-Kestner', in Mitterand (ed.), Emile Zola, Oeuvres completes, Vol. 14, pp. 885-8. 15. Ibid., p. 888. 16. E. Zola, 'Le Syndicat', in Mitterand (ed.), Emile Zola, Oeuvres completes, Vol. 14, pp. 891-5. 17. E. Zola, 'Proces-Verbal', in Mitterand (ed.), Emile Zola, Oeuvres completes, Vol. 14, pp. 899-901. 18. E. Zola, 'Lettre a Ia jeunesse', in Mitterand (ed.), Emile Zola, Oeuvres completes, Vol. 14, pp. 903-9. 19. E. Zola, 'Lettre a Ia France', in Mitterand (ed.), Emile Zola, Oeuvres completes, Vol. 14, pp. 911-18. 20. C. Charle, Histoire sociale de Ia France au XIX" siecle, Editions du Seuil (Collection Points Histoire), 1991, p. 268. See also Charle, Naissance de 'intellectuels' (1880-1900), Editions de Minuit, 1990; Charle, 'Champ litteraire et champ du pouvoir, lcs ccrivains et !'Affaire Dreyfus', Annales (ESC), April-May 1977, pp. 240-64. 21. For nineteenth-century French intellectuals see, M. Winock, Les Voix de la liberte, Editions du Seuil, 2001. 22. E. Cahm, The Dreyfus Affair in French Society and Politics, Longman, 1996, p. 69. 23. Quoted inLe Kiosque de /'affaire Dreyfus, Marianne (hors serie), January 1998, p. 17. 24. M. Palcologue, Journal de /'affaire Dreyfus 1894-1889, Plan, 1955, pp. 90-1. 25. M. Barres, 'La Protestation des intellectuels', Le Kiosque de /'affaire Dreyfus, p. 18. 26. Ibid. 27. Ibid. 28. Z. Sternhell, Maurice Banes et le nationalisme fraru;ais, Editions Complexe, 1985, p. 247. 29. H. L. Wesscling, 'Reluctant Crusaders: French Intellectuals and the Dreyfus Affair', Stanford French Review, Winter 1977, pp. 379-95, p. 388. 30. M. Winock, Le Siecle des intellectuels, Editions du Seuil, 1997, p. 33. 31. Ibid., p. 34. 32. Cahm, Dreyfus Affair in French Society and Politics, p. 85. 33. Winock, Le Siecle des intellectuels, p. 35. Notes, pp. 25-42 189 34. It was very much The Declaration of the Rights of Man since its 'universalism' excluded women. 35. My emphasis. 36. M. Barres, 'Nationalisme, determinisme', Scenes et doctrines du nationalisme, Editions du Trident, 1987, p. 12. 37. Ibid., p. 20. 38. M. Barres, 'L' Affaire Dreyfus', Scenes et doctrines du naHonalisme, p. 68. 39. Speech by M. Barrcs (15 June 1901), in Barrcs, Scenes et doctrines du nationalisme, p. 92. 40. Barres, 'Affaire Dreyfus', p. 35. 41. Ibid., p. 49. 42. R. Gildea, France 1870-1914, Longman, 1996, p. 44. 43. The jew was usually male but jewish women were also castigated as sensual, perverted and debauched. 44. ].-D. Bredin, L'Affaire, Fayard/]ulliard, 1993 (1983), p. 48 (English translation, ].-D. Bred in, The Affair, Sidgwick and jackson, 1987). 45. Barres, 'Affaire Dreyfus', p. 50. 46. Ibid., pp. 111-12. 47. L. Poliakov, Histoire de l'antisemiHsme, vol. 2: L'Age de Ia science, p. 284. 48. For details of the anti-Semitic riots of 1898, sec S. Wilson, 'The Anti-Semitic Riots of 1898 in France', The Historical Journal, xvi, 4, 1973, pp. 789-806. 49. R. Girardet (ed.), Le Nationalisme fran~,:ais 1871-1914, Armand Colin, 1966, p. 14. 50. F. Bedarida, 'L'Armee et Ia Republique', Revue historiquc, September 1964, quoted in Bredin, L'Affaire, p. 30. 51. Bectarida, 'L'Armee et Ia Republique', p. 31. 52. Ibid., p. 28. 53. Bredin, L'Affaire, p. 475. 2. From 'Republican Defence' to Defence of the Patrie 1. The title of Zola's novel exposing the living and working conditions of French miners. 2. jean Allemane was a central figure in the Parti ouvrier socialiste revolutionnaire, founded in October 1890 after it split from the Federation des travailleurs socialistes (PTSP) whose reformism it rejected. The Allemanists later helped found the Parti socialiste de France. 3. M. Prat, 'Georges Sorel et Ia decomposition du dreyfusisme', in M. Leymarie (ed.), La Fosterite de /'affaire Dreyfus, Presses Universitaires du Septentrion, 1998, pp. 15-30, p. 18. 4. Quoted in Bredin, L'Af{aire, p. 591. 5. Ibid., p. 590. 6. Quoted in Cahm, Dreyfus Affair in French Society and Politics, p. 96. 7. Quoted in].-]. Fiechter, Le Socialisme fran~;ais: De !'affaire Dreyfus a Ia grande guerre, Librairie Droz, 1965, p. 50. 8. Ibid., p. 51. 9. Winock, Le Siecle des intellectuels, p. 84. 10. ]. Bastaire, Preface to Charles Peguy, Notre jeunesse, preceded by De Ia raison, Gallimard, 1993, p. 9. 190 Notes, pp. 45-58 11. Quoted in Girardet (ed.), Le Nationalisme fram;ais, p. 184. 12. C. Maurras, Enquete sur Ia monarchic, quoted in E. Weber, Action Fran~;aise, Stanford University Press, 1962, p. 28 (French edition, E. Weber, L'Action fran~,:aise, Fayard (Collection Pluriel), 1985). 13. E. Cahm, PCguy et le nationalisme fram;ais, Cahiers de l'amith~ Charles Peguy, No. 25, 1972, p. 23. 14. Ibid., p. 39. 15. Quoted in C. Prochasson and A. Rasmussen, Au nom de Ia patrie: les intellectuels et Ia premiere guerre mondiale (1910-1919), Editions de Ia Decouverte, 1996, p. 64. 16. G. Sorel, Preface to the second edition of La Revolution dreyfusienne, Editions du Trident, 1988 (2nd edn, 1910), p. 3. 17. Sorel, La Revolution dreyfusienne, p. 35. 18. G. Sorel, 'La Decomposition du Marxisme', La Decomposition du marxisme, Presses Universitaires de France, 1982, p. 254. 19. Peguy, Notre jeunesse, p. 143 (italics in the original). 20. Ibid., p. 115. 21. Ibid., p. 162. 22. R. Rolland, Journal des annees de guerre 1914-1919, Cahiers 1, Albin Michel, 1952, p. 34. 23. Quoted in].-]. Becker, La France en guerre 1914-1918, Editions Complexe, 1988, p. 21. 24. Quoted in R. Schor, La France dans Ia premiere guerre mondiale, Editions Nathan, 1997, p. 34. 25. Quoted in].-]. Becker and S. Audoin-Rouzeau, La France, Ia nation, Ia guerre: 1850-1920, SEDES, 1995, p. 273. 26. H. de Montherlant, quoted in Winock, Le Siecle des intellectuels, p. 137. 27. Weber, Action Fran,-aise, p. 92. 28. Ibid., p. 92. 29. Ibid., p. 93. 30. It should be noted that, although the backing for the union sacree by the SFIO was prompt and unanimous, differences soon started to appear.