T e Stone Fortif cations of the Maszkowice Hillfort 141 Joanna Jędrysik and Marcin S. Przybyła T e Early Bronze Age Stone Fortif cations of the Maszkowice Hillfort (Polish Carpathians). Product of an Adaptive Mind or idée f xe? Among many prehistoric hillforts of the Western Carpathians the one located at Maszkowice village dis- plays unique traits. T e site was excavated in 1960s and 1970s, but it was not until 2015 that the new f eld project revealed remains of massive stone fortif cations. T e wall of the Zyndram’s Hill is dated to the Early Bronze Age (18th century BC), being one of the earliest examples of defensive stone architecture in Europe outside Mediterranean. In our paper we shall discuss the development of the defensive system with its geographical and settlement context. Considering the results of f eldwork and other applied methods we can assume, that the enclosed settlement in Maszkowice functioned as an isolated point located in scarcely populated area. T erefore, we need to stress the landscape and geological circumstances which played a signif cant role in inner layout organization, social perception and the development of settlement and its fortif cations. T e stone wall was erected already at the beginning of the site’s occupation. T e defensive system existed then in its most elaborated form (with at least two gates leading into the village), while later during several dozen years the fortif cations slowly but constantly deteriorated. Finally, in conclusion we shall consider the stone wall of Zyndram’s Hill not as a product of local adaptation, but as a result of a pre- pared execution of a project. Introduction ganization and demography. T e second part of the study will contain an up-to-date description of It is of en so in archaeology that a single discovery stone fortif cations (af er the excavations in 2016 is capable of raising quite a new set of questions. and 2017), as well as remarks on their chronology. T is is also the case of the Maszkowice hillfort. In 2015, while investigating the lowermost layers of the Bronze Age settlement, we came across relicts Geographical context of massive stone fortif cations. Although the pre- liminary results of these discoveries are already T e foundation of the Early Bronze Age enclosed published,1 each following month spent on exca- settlement in Maszkowice relied upon optimal vations or studies on collected materials brings us landscape, environmental and economic factors. new data, which signif cantly broaden our knowl- T e site is located in the central part of Polish edge about this exceptional site. In our paper we Western Carpathians, in the microregion called will address one of the main questions concerning the Łącko Basin (Fig. 1a-b). T is 7.5 km2 area the stone fortif cations of the Maszkowice hillfort: was formed during the Quaternary as a result of can they be considered as a product of native in- the Dunajec River activity and f uvial erosion.2 vention, adoption to the local geographical condi- T e southern border of the Łącko Basin was cre- tions, or rather should they be seen as an execu- ated due to the indentation of the river into the tion of a mature and f nished “blueprint”? In order steep slopes of the Beskid Sądecki Mountains. In to collect our arguments, we discuss the environ- contrast, the northern part of the region is more mental context of the site as well as the data con- accessible and consists of gently waved promon- cerning settlement history in the region. Further, tories extended on the foreground of the Beskid we present an overview of how the Early Bronze Wyspowy Mountains. Moreover nowadays, and Age settlement developed in terms of spatial or- most probably also in prehistory, alluvial deposits 1 Przybyła 2016. 2 Zuchiewicz 1999. 142 Joanna Jędrysik · Marcin S. Przybyła Fig. 1 Localisation of the hillfort on Zyndram’s Hill in Maszkowice: a against the background of the Bronze and Early Iron Age set- tlement network within the upper Dunajec river valley; b location of sites (maps by J. Jędrysik) T e Stone Fortif cations of the Maszkowice Hillfort 143 Fig. 2 Advanced viewshed analysis for the observation point located in the eastern part of the Maszkowice hillfort prepared in Quantum GIS, plug-in by Čučković 2016. Parameters: radius – 6 km, observation point – 1.6 m, receiver height – 0 m, atmospheric refraction – 0’ (map by J. Jędrysik) on the wide river terrace created favourable con- widening and the adjacent area (Fig. 2). T e entire ditions for agricultural development. A detailed observation f eld of a person standing upon the description of the archaeological site localisation highest point of the site amounts to about 15 km2. and its economic consequences have already been Undoubtedly in terms of landscape conditions the discussed elsewhere.3 T erefore, this paper will only localisation is attractive due to two main factors: concern the landscape and environmental circum- the ability to supervise the main area of economic stances of the erection of the stone fortif cations. exploitation and the possibility to control the best T e site is situated in the middle of the north- communication route via the river valley. It is ern edge of the Łącko Basin and close to the widest noteworthy, however, that mostly the area located part of the valley. T e Bronze and Early Iron Age to the south and west was clearly visible, while the settlements were established at the tip of a small interior of the Beskid Wyspowy Mountains and promontory called Zyndram’s Hill, which rises the easternmost part of the Łącko Basin were ob- about 410 m above sea level and 50 m directly scured. above the Dunajec river terrace (Fig. 1b). T e Further the attention should be directed to geo- promontory is separated from the neighbouring logical aspects, which probably were of crucial im- areas by two streams f owing at the base of the hill portance for the manner of erection, localisation and undercutting its steep slopes. Today this hilly and survival of the Early Bronze Age stone forti- region is densely covered by forest; however, the f cations. T e structure of Zyndram’s Hill ref ects unique topography makes Zyndram’s Hill a very a sequence of deposits common in the region: good observation point. T e viewshed analysis sandstone as bedrock covered by Late Pleistocene prepared in 6-km radius from the site shows the loess sediments.4 T e essence of the matter is not potential of visual control over the river valley’s only based on the proximity of building material 3 Przybyła et al. 2012. 4 Paul 1980. 144 Joanna Jędrysik · Marcin S. Przybyła Fig. 3 Local relief model and slope analysis prepared in Quantum GIS which show detail of Zyndram’s Hill’s topography (steep west- ern and southern slopes, eastern and northern terraces and plateau) (map by J. Jędrysik) (sandstone), but also on consequences directly In the light of conducted f eldwork it can also connected with the natural shape of the promon- be stated that the defensive system was not raised tory. Conducted f eldwork has already unearthed in the western and southern edges of the site. Not the Early Bronze Age stone fortif cations in a surprisingly a series of drillings and basic deposit c. 50-meter long section, based on non-destruc- modelling proved that the top of the bedrock in tive techniques; we can estimate their total length the southern part of the promontory occurs al- for at least 200 m and locate them in the easily most directly below the ground level (Fig. 4). T e accessible northern and eastern parts of the site. farther north and east the sandstone is covered T e digital elevation model analysis (Fig. 3) and by ever thicker loess deposits. T erefore, it is im- the electrical resistivity test results obtained for aginable that the bedrock on Zyndram’s Hill falls the entire perimeter of the site initially indicated from the south-west to the north-east, while the the idea, which was later conf rmed by geological highest point is located somewhere in the west- reconnaissance. All obtained data show that the ern or southern slopes. T e clarif ed hypothesis is wall was founded not upon the bedrock, which supported by f eld observation of the sandstone would ensure the ground stability, but on top of layering in one of modern quarries at the foot of thick loess sediments. T is kind of substrate is the promontory. Hence, it appears that from the susceptible to water erosion and was simply not west and south the enclosed Early Bronze Age set- the optimal basis for the heavy stone construc- tlement was protected by a natural barrier in the tion, wherefore maintaining the fortif cations in form of steep slopes and possibly also rock faces. good condition was probably not easy. T e Stone Fortif cations of the Maszkowice Hillfort 145 Fig. 4 Basic deposit modelling of boreholes obtained in a geological reconnaissance of the western edge of the Maszkowice hillfort (cp. Fig. 5) (illustration by J. Jędrysik) Development of the Early Bronze Age Zyndram’s Hill). It was the only possible place settlement for stable settlement presence; surveys conducted there in 2003 delivered a few pieces of pottery According to palynological investigations in the and f int inventory dated to the Early Bronze Age. area, there is a long gap in the settlement history Unfortunately, drillings and geomagnetic survey of the Łącko Basin between the Early Neolithic taken recently in Jazowsko do not conf rm the ex- and the Bronze Age.5 T is is also clearly visible in istence of a settlement or a cemetery in the area.