MARTIN RUNDKVIST BARSHALDER 2 Studies of Late Iron Age Gotland University of Stockholm 1 For YuSie, Samuel and Sprout, with all my love © 2003 Martin Rundkvist ISBN 91-631-3732-1 Cover design: Göran Österlund, using drawings by Stefan Kayat and a photograph by Peter Manneke Graphic design: Martin Rundkvist Printed by: Elanders Gotab, Stockholm, 2003 2 Table of Contents Preface & Acknowledgements ..................................................................................5 1. Introduction .............................................................................................................6 1.1 The research tradition ...................................................................................7 1.2 Gender terminology ......................................................................................7 1.3 Chronological basics ......................................................................................8 1.4 Standards of source criticism .......................................................................8 1.5 Statistical methods .........................................................................................9 2. Migration Period typochronology ..................................................................... 11 2.0 Previous work and methodological critique ........................................... 11 2.1 Data set and methodology ......................................................................... 16 2.2 Pottery ............................................................................................................ 17 2.3 Combs ............................................................................................................. 17 2.4 Strap buckles.................................................................................................. 17 2.5 Sundry strap mounts and staple rings ...................................................... 18 2.6 Strap retaining mounts ................................................................................ 18 2.7 Strap end mounts ......................................................................................... 18 2.8 Fibulae ............................................................................................................. 19 2.9 Dress pins....................................................................................................... 20 2.10 Pendants ....................................................................................................... 20 2.11 Clasps ............................................................................................................ 20 2.12 Weaponry ..................................................................................................... 20 2.13 Other artefacts, unsuitable for chronological study ........................... 23 2.14 Graves with heirloom objects ................................................................. 23 2.15 The female sequence.................................................................................. 23 2.16 The male sequence ..................................................................................... 25 2.17 Correlating the two sequences ............................................................... 27 2.18 Correlating the female sequences for Gotland and Bornholm ........ 29 2.19 Correlating the female sequences for Gotland and Norway ............ 30 2.20 Correlating the male sequences for Gotland and Norway ............... 31 2.21 Absolute dating............................................................................................ 31 3. Late Iron Age social roles: gender, age and status .......................................... 36 3.1 Migration Period gender ............................................................................. 36 3.1.1 Gender attributes ................................................................................ 37 3.1.2 Gender ratio at Barshalder ................................................................ 40 3.1.3 Sub-gender groups ............................................................................... 40 3.1.4 Women in mortuary symbolism ....................................................... 41 3.1.5 Men in mortuary symbolism ............................................................. 41 3.1.6 Gender-neutral attributes .................................................................. 41 3.1.7 Gender and bone data at Barshalder............................................... 42 3.2 Migration Period social status .................................................................... 43 3.2.1 Human sacrifice at Barshalder ........................................................... 45 3.2.2 Animal bones at Barshalder................................................................ 45 3.3 Vendel Period gender at Barshalder .......................................................... 47 3.3.1 Gender attributes ................................................................................ 47 3.3.2 Changing gender roles ........................................................................ 49 3 3.3.3 Gender ratio .......................................................................................... 51 3.3.4 Female sub-gender groups .................................................................. 51 3.3.5 Male sub-gender groups....................................................................... 53 3.3.6 Gender-neutral attributes ................................................................... 54 3.3.7 Gender and bone data ......................................................................... 54 3.4 Vendel Period social status at Barshalder.................................................. 55 3.4.1 Human sacrifice and slavery................................................................ 57 3.4.2 Animal bones .......................................................................................... 58 3.5 Late Viking Period gender and age at Barshalder .................................... 60 3.6 Late Viking Period social status at Barshalder.......................................... 62 4. Religious identity in the 11th century ............................................................... 64 4.1 Burial ritual at Barshalder ............................................................................ 64 4.1.1 Sampling .................................................................................................. 65 4.1.2 Non-dress artefacts in pagan graves ................................................. 65 4.1.3 Axes .......................................................................................................... 65 4.1.4 Maces ....................................................................................................... 65 4.1.5 Whetstones ............................................................................................ 68 4.1.6 Rivet clusters.......................................................................................... 68 4.1.7 Combs ..................................................................................................... 68 4.1.8 Knives ...................................................................................................... 68 4.1.9 Amber amulets ....................................................................................... 69 4.1.10 Vessels .................................................................................................... 69 4.1.11 Re-used picture-stones ...................................................................... 70 4.1.12 Animal bones........................................................................................ 70 4.1.13 Rattles ................................................................................................... 70 4.1.14 Keys........................................................................................................ 70 4.1.15 Spindlewhorls....................................................................................... 71 4.1.16 Sewing needles .................................................................................... 71 4.1.17 Needle cases ........................................................................................ 71 4.1.18 Fossils .................................................................................................... 71 4.1.19 Interpreting the pattern of placement ........................................... 71 4.2 Religious conversion ..................................................................................... 72 4.2.1 Pagan mortuary symbolism................................................................. 72 4.2.2 Pagan reactionaries ............................................................................... 73 4.2.3 Were the churchless cemeteries in fact pagan? .............................. 73 4.2.4 Confessional geography of Gotland in the 11th century ............. 75 4.2.5 The Strelowian dates and the 11th century cemetery situation ................................................................................ 81 4.2.6 Conversion-period society ................................................................. 82 5. Conclusions and summary................................................................................... 84 6. Slutsatser och sammanfattning på svenska ....................................................... 88 7. References..............................................................................................................