Finnish Journal of Ethnicity and Migration Vol. 3, No. 2 / 2008 www.etmu.fi Publisher Special Issue: Female Genital Cutting in the Past and Today • The Society for the Study of Ethnic Relations and International Migration (ETMU) Contents • This journal is available online at http://www.etmu.fi/fjem/ 2 Marja Tiilikainen and Janneke Johansson: Introduction • ISSN 1796-6582 Articles Editorial Staff 4 Janice Boddy: Clash of Selves: Gender, Personhood, and Human Rights Discourse in Colonial Sudan • Editor-in-chief: Matti Similä (CEREN) 14 William G. Clarence-Smith: Islam and Female Genital Cutting in • Guest editor-in-chief: Marja Tiilikainen Southeast Asia: The Weight of the Past (University of Helsinki) 23 Basilica Dyah Putranti: To Islamize, Becoming a Real Woman or • Assistant editor: Maarit Forde Commercialized Practices? Questioning Female Genital Cutting in (Newcastle University) Indonesia • Guest assistant editors: Susan Villa and 32 Claudia Merli: Sunat for Girls in Southern Thailand: Its Relation to Janneke Johansson (Finnish League for Traditional Midwifery, Male Circumcision and Other Obstetrical Practices Human Rights) 42 Brigitte Bagnol and Esmeralda Mariano: Elongation of the labia • Book review editor: Heli Hyvönen (Uni- minora and Use of Vaginal Products to Enhance Eroticism: Can These Practices be Considered FGM? versity of Helsinki) Mika Takoja 54 Courtney Smith: Creating Spaces: Challenging Conventional • Desktop publishing: (Popu- Discursive Norms Surrounding the Marking of Women’s Bodies lation Research Institute/Väestöliitto) 64 Aud Talle: Precarious Identities: Somali Women in Exile Editorial Board 74 Sara Johnsdotter: Popular Notions of FGC in Sweden: The Case of Ali • Elli Heikkilä (Institute of Migration), Elmi Mikko Lagerspetz (Åbo Akademi), Yngve Lithman (University of Bergen), Tuomas Project Reports Martikainen (Åbo Akademi), Sari Pie- 83 R. Elise B. Johansen, Heli Bathija and Jitendra Khanna: Work of the tikäinen (University of Jyväskylä), Vesa World Health Organization on Female Genital Mutilation: Ongoing Puuronen (University of Kuopio), Teppo Research and Policy Discussions Sintonen (University of Jyväskylä), Ismo 90 Ugaso Jama Gulaid: The Challenge of Female Genital Mutilation in Söderling (Population Research Insti- Somaliland tute/Väestöliitto), Marja Tiilikainen (Uni- 92 Faduma-Hagi M. Hussein: Changing Attitudes towards FGM in the versity of Helsinki) and Charles Westin Somali Community in London (CEIFO/University of Stockholm) 96 Janneke Johansson: Methods for the Prevention of Female Genital Cutting in Finland Partner Institutions • CEREN, Institute of Migration, Popula- About the Journal tion Research Institute/Väestöliitto The Finnish Journal of Ethnicity and Migration (FJEM) is devoted to the high quality study of ethnic relations and international migration. Published biannually by the Society for the Contact Study of Ethnic Relations and International Migration (ETMU), this peer-reviewed, interdisci- • All correspondence to Maarit Forde, plinary, open-access journal provides a forum for discussion and the refinement of key ideas and concepts in the fields of ethnicity and international population movement. The Editors [email protected] welcome articles, research reports and book review essays from researchers, professionals, and students all over the world. Although international in its scope of interests and range of Guidelines for Contributors contributors, The Finnish Journal of Ethnicity and Migration focuses particularly on research conducted in Finland and other Nordic countries. Opinions expressed in the FJEM articles • Internet: www.etmu.fi/fjem/ are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of ETMU. 1 Finnish Journal of Ethnicity and Migration Vol. 3, No. 2 / 2008 www.etmu.fi Marja Tiilikainen and Janneke Johansson Introduction Female circumcision or female genital cutting (FGC) is an Human Rights, Hanasaari – The Swedish-Finnish Cultural Centre ancient cultural tradition, which is practiced in many African and Kvinnoforum – Foundation of Women’s Forum in Sweden, countries, but also in some areas of the Middle-East and Asia. 7─8 September, 2007. The aim of the conference was to bring In the past twenty years, as a consequence of increased mobil- together scholars and other experts to discuss the multi-faceted ity and migration, female genital cutting has become known phenomenon of FGC from historical and present-day perspec- all over the world, even in the Nordic countries. According to tives. In addition to academic work, experiences from projects, WHO estimates, there are 100–140 million girls and women community work and good practices were presented. The con- living today who have been subjected to the practice, and ference attracted 120 participants from Finland and other Nordic annually approximately 3 million girls are at risk of under- countries, as well as from other European countries, North Amer- going female circumcision. The procedure itself may range ica, Africa and Asia. During the two days over 30 presentations from minor pricking and piercing to excision of the clitoris were given, including the key note speeches of Professor Janice and narrowing of the vaginal orifice with creation of a cover- Boddy from the University of Toronto, Technical Officer, PhD ing seal by cutting and appositioning the labia. (For the clas- Elise Johansen from WHO and Molly Melching, founder and sification of different FGC types, see Johansen et al. in this Executive Director of Tostan, an organization that was awarded issue.) The consequences and complications of female geni- the Conrad N. Hilton Humanitarian Prize in 2007. tal cutting vary according to the extent of the operation, the FOKO is a Nordic, multidisciplinary network for research instruments used, the skills of the circumciser, as well as other on female genital cutting (Forskning om Kvindelig Omskæring) circumstances during and after the operation. that was founded eight years ago by two doctoral students in Medical experts, human rights activists, feminists, and also anthropology, Elise Johansen and Sara Johnsdotter. The first many circumcised women themselves see the practice as harmful FOKO conference was held in Oslo, Norway in 2001, the second to the health of girls and women and as a violation of their human in Malmö, Sweden in 2003, the third in Copenhagen, Denmark rights. Recently, also some religious authorities have openly in 2005 and the fourth in Espoo, Finland in 2007. In her opening opposed the continued practice of female genital cutting, at least speech Dr. Sara Johnsdotter reminded the audience of the history the most radical operations. Furthermore, legislation in almost and the essence of the FOKO network and FOKO meetings: all European countries as well as many countries where the prac- tice of female genital cutting is widely spread, forbids the act. In FOKO was, and is, meant to create a zone free from politi- Europe and Africa, several campaigns and projects against FGC, cal correctness and rebukes of dissidents. Debate – yes; cen- both on national and international levels, have been conducted. sorship – no. That is why it is of minor importance if a confer- Despite all these efforts FGC continues to occur both in West- ence participant chooses to say “female circumcision,” “fe- ern countries and in the countries with long history of FGC. Is it male genital cutting,” “female genital mutilation,” ”female genital possible to eradicate a deeply-rooted, culturally significant tradi- modification” or something else. It is ideas, arguments and results tion, and on what conditions? What kind of a challenge is FGC that are in focus. We will have all these presentations and discus- today, and whom does it concern, considering the historical and sions in an air of respectfulness. present circumstances like the relatively easy travel and border- crossings? These questions are being addressed in this special There is an ongoing and sometimes heated discussion on issue of the Finnish Journal of Ethnicity and Migration (FJEM). appropriate terminology regarding female genital cutting. This thematic issue is based on selected papers presented dur- The term FGM, female genital mutilation, has been widely ing the 4th FOKO Conference in Finland, arranged jointly by the adopted. For example, in the 6th General Assembly of the KokoNainen (Whole Woman) Project of The Finnish League for Inter-African Committee on Traditional Practices Affecting 2 FINNISH JOURNAL OF ETHNICITY AND MIGRATION VOL. 3, NO. 2/2008 the Health of Women and Children that was held in April 2005 had to do with the political context of FGC in the West and the in Mali, an appeal was made to use the term FGM. However, emotional power field surrounding it. as the term FGM is politically as well as emotionally very The project reports highlight current activities, achieve- charged and does not reflect the variety of circumcision types ments and challenges in the work against female genital cut- nor its cultural meanings, other terms have also been recom- ting. R. Elise B. Johansen, Heli Bathija and Jitendra Khanna mended and used, particularly in preventive work at the grass- outline ongoing research and policy discussions in the World root level. In the Helsinki conference as well as in this theme Health Organization that has set international standards for issue, we have preferred the terms female circumcision and FGM, including the classification of different types of FGM. female genital cutting, FGC, which we find to