Retreats and Withdrawals in Republican Roman Warfare Daniel Morgan, BA (Hons) (Newcastle) A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Ancient History and Classical Langugages May 2020 This research was supported by an Australian Government Research Training Program (RTP) Scholarship Retreats and Withdrawals in Republican Roman Warfare 2020 Statement of Originality I hereby certify that the work embodied in the thesis is my own work, conducted under normal supervision. The thesis contains no material which has been accepted, or is being examined, for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution and, to the best of my knowledge and belief, contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference has been made. I give consent to the final version of my thesis being made available worldwide when deposited in the University’s Digital Repository, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968 and any approved embargo. Signature: D. Morgan Date: 5 May 2020 Daniel Morgan University of Newcastle 2 Retreats and Withdrawals in Republican Roman Warfare 2020 Acknowledgements I would first and foremost like to thank my primary supervisor, Dr. Jane Bellemore, for her direction and assistance during all stages of my studies, and especially for her assistance with this thesis. I wish I had a sestertius for each gratuitous or ill-considered question I bombarded her with. Even so, I received a considered and useful response to each and every one. She has given me a great deal of feedback on numerous drafts of this thesis, and I would not have been able to do it without her guidance. I also wish to extend my sincerest thanks to Dr. Elizabeth Baynham, who has been my co-supervisor for the latter stages of my work. She has also given me valuable feedback that has significantly improved this thesis. I further wish to extend my thanks to the many other History and Ancient History staff that I have had fruitful discussions with over the years. Finally, I wish to express my gratitude towards the University of Newcastle itself, where I have been studying since 2011. The University has been very supportive throughout my studies and I owe this instititution a significant debt of gratitude. Naturally, any remaining errors in this work are entirely my own responsibility. Sincerely, Daniel Morgan 3 Retreats and Withdrawals in Republican Roman Warfare 2020 Table of Contents Abstract....................................................................................................................................... 7 Introduction: How Battles and Campaigns Ended in Roman Republican Warfare.................... 8 Preamble............................................................... ........................................................ 9 Recent Developments in the Study of Roman Battles and Tactics............................... 11 Modern Views on How Battles and Campaigns Ended................................................ 14 What are Retrograde Manoeuvres, Retreats and Withdrawals? ................................. 18 How Often Retreats and Withdrawals Occurred.................................. ...................... 19 Overview of Key Sources.................................. .......................................................... 20 Terminology and Complications in Identifying and Distinguishing Types of Retrograde Manoeuvres.................................. ................................... ......................... 30 Purpose and Scope of the Thesis.................................. .............................................. 38 Thesis Structure............................. .................................. ........................................... 39 Method.................................. ............................. ........................................................ 41 Translations............................ .................................. .................................................. 43 Conclusion............................. .................................. ................................................... 43 Chapter One: Retreat and Withdrawal: Why and Where To? .................................................. 44 Introduction............................ .................................. .................................................. 45 Part A: Why Armies Retreated.................................... ................................................ 46 Retreats Due to Defeat in Battle....................................................................... 46 Retirements from Indecisive Battles................................................................ 49 Disengagements at Nightfall.................................. ........................................ 51 Disengagements Due to Poor Weather............................................................. 55 Feigned Retreats.................................. .................................. ......................... 56 Summary of Part A.................................. ........................................................ 60 Part B: Where Armies Sought Refuge.................................. ....................................... 60 High Ground.................................. .................................................................. 60 Camps.................................. .................................. ......................................... 62 Walled Settlements.................................. ........................................................ 72 Summary of Part B.................................. ........................................................ 74 Part C: Retrograde Movements over Longer Distances.................................... .......... 75 Summary of Part C.................................. ........................................................ 79 4 Retreats and Withdrawals in Republican Roman Warfare 2020 Conclusion................................................................ ................................................... 80 Chapter Two: The Impact of Pursuit on Retreating or Withdrawing Forces........................... 82 Introduction............................ .................................. .............................................. 83 Types of Pursuits.................................. .................................. .......................... 84 How Pursuit Could Produce Disorder.................................. ........................................ 89 Considerations Against Pursuit.................................. ............................................ 93 Conclusion.................................. .................................. .................................. ........... 97 Chapter Three: Roman Retreat Tactics, Part I: Ratio and Combined Arms............................. 99 Introduction............................ .................................. ................................................... 100 Factors of Success in Retreats and Withdrawals........................................................... 101 Physical Order in Retrograde Movements.................................. .............................. 104 Legionary Training, Tactics and Reserve Lines.......................................................... 109 The Roles of Subordinate Officers.................................. ........................................... 117 Equites, Velites et Auxilia.................................. .................................. ...................... 122 Conclusion.................................. .................................. ........................................... 126 Chapter Four: Roman Retreat Tactics, Part II: Virtus, Consilium and Scientia Rei Militaris.................................................................................................................................., 128 Introduction.................................. .................................. 129 The Roman Imperator.............................. .................................. 130 The General’s Tactical Duties.................................. 133 Generalship in Retreats from the Battleline and Into a Fortified Position 136 Generalship During Retirement From a Fortified Position and On the March 142 Conclusion.................................. 148 Chapter Five: The Development of Roman Retreat Tactics from the Middle to Late Republic (218-46 BC) 150 Introduction............................ .................................. 151 Retreats in the Punic and Macedonian Wars (218-168 BC) 153 Retreat Tactics from 149 to 102 BC.................................. 161 Retreat Tactics in the Late Republic............................ 169 Conclusion 182 Chapter Six: Disastrous Withdrawals in the Late Republic and Early Empire....................... 187 Introduction.................................. .................................. 188 The Battle of Carrhae, 53 BC 189 5 Retreats and Withdrawals in Republican Roman Warfare 2020 Marcus Antonius’ Parthian Campaign, 36 BC............................................................... 198 The Clades Variana, AD 9.................................. ..................................................... 209 Conclusion.................................. .................................. .......................... ................ 220 Conclusion: Retreats and Withdrawals in Roman Warfare................................................