U N I K A S S E L V E R S I T Ä T Private Higher Education in the Sultanate of Oman: Rationales, Development and Challenges Masoud Ali Majid Al Harthy Doctoral thesis submitted to the University of Kassel February 2011 Die vorliegende Arbeit wurde vom Fachbereich Gesellschaftswissenschaften der Universität Kassel als Dissertation zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades eines Doktors der Philosophie (Dr. phil.) angenommen. Erster Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Ulrich Teichler Zweiter Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Barbara Kehm Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 8. Juni 2011 Author's Declaration Author’s Declaration Hiermit versichere ich, dass ich die vorliegende Dissertation selbständig und ohne unerlaubte Hilfe angefertigt und andere als die in der Dissertation angegebenen Hilfsmittel nicht benutzt habe. Alle Stellen, die wörtlich oder sinngemäß aus veröffentlichten oder unveröffentlichten Schriften entnommen sind, habe ich als solche kenntlich gemacht. Kein Teil dieser Arbeit ist in einem anderen Promotions- oder Habilitationsverfahren verwendet worden. I herewith confirm that I wrote the present thesis independently and without illegal help and that I did not use other resources than those indicated in the thesis. I have marked all text passages, which are literally or in a general manner taken out of published or unpublished writings, as such. No part of this thesis was used in another doctoral examination procedure or habilitation procedure. Masoud Al Harthy Kassel, February 2011 i Abstract Abstract From merely three primary schools with 900 boys in 1970 to more than half a million students of both sexes studying in 1,046 state schools, the general education (primary, preparatory, secondary) sector in the Sultanate of Oman has taken an active role in achieving this level of education for all. This active and rapid expansion of Oman's general education system outstripped the capacity of the public (state) higher education system, resulting in a huge number of secondary education leavers denied opportunities to enrol in higher education. This dilemma created a serious challenge to the government and has become a national concern. Moreover, the rising demand of labour market for qualified workers created a social and economic demand for higher education. To address these issues, the Government of Oman has invited the private sector to participate in higher education through establishing private colleges and universities. The government legalised private higher education and endorsed its development through a generous set of incentives to those willing to operate or invest in this field. It provided the land on which to build private universities and colleges, exempted private institutions from taxes for five years, provided them with scholarships for students from low-income families, and awarded each of the private universities a capital grant of up RO 20 million ($52 million). In order to ensure the quality of the programmes delivered by these institutions, it was required that Oman's private institutions be affiliated with recognised foreign universities. Moreover, the private sector was also required to get the permission and approval of the government for opening private higher education institutions. Furthermore, the Oman Accreditation Council was established in 2001 to evaluate and accredit higher education institutions and the programmes offered. Since their beginning in 1995/1996, private higher education institutions have grown quickly. During the academic year 2008/2009, twenty-four private higher education institutions (five universities and nineteen colleges) were established. Student enrolment in these institutions rose from 150 students in 1995/1996 to 33,521 in 2008/2009. The main aim of this study is to examine the rationales and objectives of establishment of private higher education in Oman, its development, and the challenges facing this sector. The research questions relate to the rationales and objectives of private ii Abstract higher education, whether this sector contributes positively in achieving these rationales and objectives, and what challenges this sector faces. To generate the required information, semi-structured interviews were carried out with 18 university vice-chancellors and college deans, along with 7 decisionmakers in the Ministry of Higher Education. Government and nongovernment documents and statistics on higher education, particularly private higher education system and labour market demand were utilised and analysed. The findings indicate the relatively high cost of enrolment in these institutions particularly for the large number of nationals who are not in a position to afford such cost. The academic and administrative structure of some of these institutions is fragile as they are still new and are not yet completely established. Most of these institutions are heavily dependent on tuition fees and government subsidies. The results also confirm that many private institutions seek profit maximisation and this is linked to a relatively high cost and no proven higher quality of provision. Regarding quality aspects, the findings show that few private institutions attempted to diversify the mechanisms of quality assurance to show that they provide relatively high quality study programmes, while many of them considered academic affiliation with recognised international universities, whose programmes are already accredited, as an essential factor for ensuring quality. The present study also reveals that the more systematic scheme of quality assurance currently adopted by the Oman Accreditation Council is socalled quality audit, as the first stage in institutional accreditation. The emphasis of this approach is to assess the effectiveness of an institution's quality enhancement process against the vision and mission stated by the institution, besides the requirements and regulations set by the government and affiliate institutions. A number of recommendations are put forward to enhance the contribution of private higher education in the country. Moreover, suggestions are made for further research for the benefit of this sector, together with the promotion of a policy of human resource development in the Sultanate. iii Acknowledgments Acknowledgments Writing this thesis was inspiring, even though it has also been a challenging experience. I am grateful to Allah for giving me the endurance, health, and ability to achieve this goal. I owe a lot to many people without whom this research would not have been possible. First of all, I am truly grateful to my supervisor, Professor Ulrich Teichler, for his generous support during my study at Kassel. I am deeply indebted to hem for his great advice, help, evaluation, and constructive comments throughout the course of this research project. Without his excellent support and encouragement this work would not have completed. I would also like to thank Professor Barbara M. Kehm for her help, constant encouragement, and important advice in several aspects. My gratitude also extends to the members of the International Centre for Higher Education Research (INCHER-Kassel) in the University of Kassel for their valuable assistance. My sincere appreciation goes to the authority in the Ministry of Higher Education in Oman for offering me the opportunity to study for the Ph.D. degree, especially H.E. Dr. Rawya Al-Busaidia, the Minister of Higher Education, who authorised my scholarship to complete my Ph.D. I am also indebted to all individuals who helped me to conduct the fieldwork for this study; their kind support and cooperation has been of great value in this study. Thanks go to my brothers and friends for their constant emotional support during my study in Germany. My deepest gratitude and a very special expression of appreciation is extended to my wife and children for their patience while I was far away from them and their constant support. Without their encouragement and understanding it would have been impossible for me to finish this work. Last, but certainly not least, my heartfelt gratitude is dedicated to my father and mother for their constant support and prayers. iv Table of Contents Table of Contents Author’s Declaration............................................................................................................ i Abstract................................................................................................................................. ii Acknowledgments................................................................................................................. iv Table of Contents.................................................................................................................. v List of Tables ...................................................................................................................... ix List of Figures....................................................................................................................... xi List of Abbreviations, Acronyms and Terms..................................................................... xii Chapter One Introduction 1.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 The Sultanate of Oman: An Overview.......................................................................... 4 1.3 The Problem of the Study............................................................................................... 6 1.4 Objectives of the Study..................................................................................................