NATIVE ANDEANS IN THE FRONTIER CITY: A NEW CONQUEST HISTORY OF URBAN PERU, 1535-1700 BY RYAN ALAN BEAN DISSERTATION Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History in the Graduate College of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2017 Urbana, Illinois Doctoral Committee: Professor Emeritus Nils Jacobsen, Chair Professor Antoinette Burton Professor Jerry Dávila Professor Craig Koslofsky Assistant Professor Claudia Brosseder ii ABSTRACT Using the imbrication of urban space and empire as a lens, this dissertation traces the emergence and making of a frontier city through an examination of sixteenth and seventeenth century Lima, Peru. By examining ongoing spatial conflicts in the viceregal capital and most important city in Spain’s South American empire, this dissertation offers a new conquest history of Peruvian urban centers. The goal of this project is twofold: to elucidate and evaluate the efficacy of spatial strategies and tools employed by the crown, royal administrators, and Church officials; and to highlight the profound roles played by native Andeans in shaping how urban space and, by extension, empire was lived, experienced, and constituted in the Lima valley. In other words, examining space and empire from below allows us to see that native peoples were central to the making of place in Lima and, thus, critical actors in the construction of new spatial conducts and identities that ran counter to the goals of the crown, as well as local, royal, and Church officials. Ungovernable indigenous mobility posed an unrelenting challenge to officials’ ability to create place on their own terms in Lima as well as in the viceroyalty more broadly. Mobile native Andeans helped forge a Peruvian frontier world of which Lima was an integral part. By entangling Lima into the larger frontier region that was the Viceroyalty of Peru, itinerant native actors were frontier place-makers who fundamentally shaped the cultural habits of the capital’s diverse population, thus calling into question the ascension of baroque culture in Lima. In exploring the early modern history of Lima through a frontier perspective, this dissertation questions commonly held ideas concerning colonial Peruvian cities, urban conquests, the Spanish empire, and its power and authority in urban society during the Habsburg period. iii To Alan Shackelford, Elizabeth Quick, and my parents, Sharon and Arvid Bean iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Nearing the completion of my dissertation at the University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign, I began to reflect on the numerous people—friends, mentors, and colleagues—who have play profound roles in shaping my graduate experience and my intellectually trajectory. I am lucky to have benefited from the mentorship, feedback, and encouragement from my dissertation committee. Each of them deserves a special thanks, as they all contributed to my project in unique ways. Antoinette Burton taught me to think about empire in new and cutting- edge ways, while Claudia Brosseder pushed me to think critically about elite conflicts and provided insightful comments about native Andeans and the Andean worldview. Jerry Dávila’s meticulous reading of my dissertation chapters, as well as his detailed feedback, were helpful beyond words. In many ways, Craig Koslofsky’s knowledge of the early modern period shaped this dissertation into what it is today. His careful readings of numerous chapter drafts always yielded new insights and pushed me to think about the early modern world in novel ways. Finally, my indefatigable advisor, Nils Jacobsen, has generously given his time to guide me through the ups and downs of dissertation writing and research over the years. Most of all, he gave me the space to find my own voice and identity as a scholar, and for that, I am truly thankful. In addition to my dissertation committee, numerous professors and graduate students at the University of Illinois provided much support and friendship and contributed to my intellectual growth. With regard to faculty, I owe my gratitude to Jovita Baber, Clare Crowston, Dana Rabin, Jessica Greenberg, and Carol Symes, all of whom challenged me to be a better scholar and provided much encouragement along the way. I would also like to thank graduate students and friends at the U of I, including Ryan Jones, Laura Duros, Rebecca Linares, Peggy v Brennan, Silvia Escanilla Huerta, and Thais Rezende da Silva de Sant'ana. Even when I was down, Rebecca and Thais never failed to put a smile on my face, and Ryan always took the time to give me friendly advice and listen when I needed to vent. Silva often went above and beyond, and for that, I am grateful. She generously gave her time to read and comment on many drafts. Lastly, I am indebted to the professors and graduate students of two reading groups: the Law in Global Contexts group and the Pre-Modern World group. Their comments on my early chapters only made them better. Beyond the University of Illinois, I was lucky to make connections with scholars and friends from across the US and in Peru. Thank you, Peggy Brennan, for introducing me to Tim Orr, Allison Brown, Lynneth Miller, and Joshua Smith. You guys are an amazing bunch, and I look forward to many more conferences with you all in the future. At DePauw University, I was lucky to meet Tineke D’Haeseleer. I am so thankful for our many conversations and for Tineke’s persistent encouragement as I was finishing up my degree at the University of Illinois. Moving from the US to Peru, I would like to thank Karen Spalding for taking the time to meet with a young graduate student. Most of all, I am indebted to Laura González Flóres, Laura Balbuena, and María Ccama for their generosity and hospitality during my year and a half stay in Lima. They provided a home away from home in Peru. Gracias por hacerme sentir como en casa. My dissertation has also benefitted from financial support from numerous sources. Support from the Tinker Foundation and the Department of History at the University of Illinois allowed me to spend three and a half months doing pre-dissertation research in Peruvian and Spanish archives. The Nelle Signor Fellowship, the Dr. Joseph L. Love, Sr. and Virginia Ellis Love Fellowship, the Department of History Dissertation Fellowship, and the Graduate College Dissertation Travel Grant allowed me to spend two years conducting archival research in Spain vi and Peru. In addition to these sources of funding, FLAS Fellowships from the Center of Latin American and Caribbean Studies and an INTERSECT Fellowship provided generous financial support during the writing stage. Finally, I would like to thank my long-time friends and family members. First, my mentor and good friend, Alan Shackelford, deserves a special thank you. At Hendrix College, Alan not only introduced me to the vibrant history of colonial Latin America, but he also took the time to mentor me, a mentorship and friendship that continues to this day. I am indebted to Alan in so many ways. Alan spent many hours reading over drafts of my dissertation chapters and providing invaluable feedback and much needed encouragement. My teaching philosophy and much of my dissertation is inspired by our ongoing conversations about pedagogy, native peoples, and frontiers, conversations that I hope will never end. Alan is truly the best teacher I know, and if I can be half the teacher he is, then I know I will have a successful future. For more than a decade, my friend and travel companion, Rachel Rein, has been there for me in good times and in bad, providing kind words and much needed pep-talks. During my long stay abroad, she visited me in Spain and Peru. When I needed to see a familiar face, Rachel was there. Thank you, Rachel, for your friendship; I will never forget our travels together. Nine years ago, Elizabeth Quick and I started our graduate studies together, and I could not have finished without her enduring love and friendship. I am so lucky to have met her. Words cannot express how grateful I am for her continual belief in me even when I doubted myself. Not only did she encourage and support me through it all, but her thorough readings of numerous chapter drafts strengthened my writing and ideas. Most of all, our time together has been some of the best in my life, and I look forward to many more years of adventures with her. vii My parents, Sharon and Arvid Bean, have also been a source of much encouragement, love, and support. Thank you, mom and dad, for pushing me to achieve my goals, and picking me up when times got tough. They have always been at my side. Without them, I would not be where I am today. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... ix INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................................................1 CHAPTER 1: THE ANDEAN FRONTIER: TOWN POLICY AND THE STRUGGLE FOR SOVEREIGNTY IN THE VICEROYALTY OF PERU ................................35 CHAPTER 2: IN AND OUT OF THE WALLED BARRIO: MOBILE INDIANS AND THE EMERGENCE OF A FRONTIER CITY IN SIXTEENTH CENTURY LIMA .........................................................................................................................86 CHAPTER 3: BUILDING URBS, SHAPING CIVITAS: THE VIRGIN OF COPACABANA COFRADÍA AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF LIMA’S BUILT AND LIVED ENVIRONMENTS ...............................................................................................130