When size matters 1 Running Head: When size matters When size matters: A hybrid theory of early literacy content and sociocultural contexts Dawnene D. Hassett Kelly L. Hatch University of Wisconsin – Madison Department of Curriculum and Instruction 225 N. Mills Street Madison, WI 53706 (608) 263-4666 [email protected] [email protected] Paper submitted to the Journal of Educational Research January, 2006 When size matters 2 When size matters: A hybrid theory of early literacy content and sociocultural contexts Abstract This paper addresses the impact of small class size on young children’s early literacy learning. Using results from an evaluation of Wisconsin’s Student Achievement Guarantee in Education (SAGE) program, which reduces class sizes in high-poverty K-3 classrooms, the authors analyze data from classroom observations and interviews to determine how early literacy instruction is constructed differently from classroom to classroom and school to school. From this analysis, the authors advance a theory that combines research on the foundations of early literacy success with sociocultural theories of language and literacy development. This hybrid theory of early literacy content and sociocultural contexts provides a way to understand how and when class size matters in early literacy instruction. When size matters 3 When size matters: A hybrid theory of early literacy content and sociocultural contexts The children gather eagerly on the carpet around their teacher as she announces, “It’s time for a story.” Ms. Fitzer sits on her chair, holding a large, spiral bound Teacher’s Text as the children settle into their places. She begins by saying, “I’m going to read Goldilocks and the Three Whats?” The children call in unison, “Bears!” With that, Ms. Fitzer begins. She reads quickly as the children begin raising their hands. When it becomes too much to ignore, she pauses briefly to state, “We need to hurry so we can get to recess, because I don’t think you want me reading this during your recess.” She continues until she is stopped by a child’s question, “Can we see the pictures?” She brushes him off, saying, “This really isn’t a picture book. This is just a read aloud.” With that, she continues the rapid reading. As Goldilocks sleeps and the bears return, several students’ hands shoot into the air. Ms. Fitzer pauses as a child asks, “Can we see the picture?” She reiterates, “This really isn’t a picture book. It’s just a book for you to listen to.” With that, she concludes the adventures of Goldilocks and snaps the text shut. Carter raises his hand and with lowered gaze and a whisper voice asks, “Are you sure there aren’t some pictures?” Ms. Fitzer replies, “Who’s ready for recess?” Kindergarten at Allerton Farwell Low Achieving School Pupil-teacher ratio: 22:2 When size matters 4 In studies and research reviews surrounding teaching in reduced-sized classes, effective teachers are often framed as those who focus on teacher-directed learning, basic knowledge skills, and behaviors such as time on task (Finn, Pannozzo, & Achilles, 2003, p. 323), whereas less effective teachers are found to emphasize child-centered learning, critical thinking abilities, creativity, self-direction, and meaningful enjoyment in the classroom (Molnar, Zahorik, Ehrle, & Halbach, 2000, p. 57). While time spent on task and teacher-directed instruction in basic literacy skills is indeed necessary for early reading success (National Reading Panel, 2000), so too is instruction that involves a child-centered sense of engagement and interest in reading (Edwards, 1995; Turner & Paris, 1995), or strategic and critical comprehension of increasingly complex texts (Bergman, 1992; Schwartz, 1997). Given this research on early literacy and language development, it is well worth taking pause to consider how we construct and generalize effective and non-effective early literacy teaching in reduced-sized classrooms. In the above vignette, from a reduced-sized kindergarten classroom with a pupil- teacher ratio of 22:2, the students are “on task,” and the teacher is directing the learning. However, the teacher clearly missed a number of opportunities to support language and literacy development in rich and meaningful ways. She has a group of eager students, ready for a story, wanting to engage, and her first (and only) question is basic with a known answer: “Goldilocks and the Three Whats?” As she reads, her hurried pace and her need to get everybody to recess snip any conversational interactions in the bud. Although this teacher is technically in a reduced-size classroom, the possible positive effects of having a smaller class size are not realized here. When size matters 5 This paper asks how teachers in reduced-size classrooms capitalize – or don’t capitalize – on the advantages of a smaller class size in terms of literacy instruction. Using results from an evaluation of Wisconsin’s Student Achievement Guarantee in Education (SAGE) program, which reduces class sizes in high-poverty K-3 classrooms to a pupil-teacher ratio of 15:1, the authors analyze data from classroom observations and interviews to determine how early literacy instruction is constructed differently from classroom to classroom. While previous research on small class sizes has been helpful in understanding the processes and outcomes of class-size reduction initiatives, this paper traces variations in literacy instruction and classroom contexts in terms of early literacy research (e.g., CIERA, 1998; National Reading Panel, 2000; National Research Council, 1998, 1999) and sociocultural theories of language and literacy (e.g., Au, 1993; Gee, 1996; Pérez, 1998). In the end, the paper offers a hybrid theory that combines early literacy research with sociocultural theories of language and literacy development, which can be used as a guiding framework for understanding how and when class size matters. Summary of Research: An Evaluation of Wisconsin’s Student Achievement Guarantee in Education (SAGE) Program Our study of early literacy practices in reduced-sized classrooms is situated within a larger evaluation of Wisconsin’s SAGE program, which is implemented in more than 500 Wisconsin schools. The specific goals of the SAGE program include improving student achievement by a) reducing class size to a pupil-teacher ratio of 15:1, b) increasing school and community collaboration, c) enhancing professional development, and d) implementing a high expectations curriculum. When size matters 6 The SAGE program evaluation examined the processes that result from the implementation of this program’s comprehensive class size reduction program in K-3 classrooms, including contextual characteristics that shape classroom practice, institutional programmatic structures, teacher beliefs, professional development opportunities, and family involvement. The sample included nine schools: four urban, two semi-urban, and three rural schools from a range of achievement levels (high- achievement, low-achievement, and rapidly improving). School achievement levels were determined by SAGE evaluation measures and the Wisconsin third-grade reading test, where records of producing high achievement, lower than expected achievement, or rapidly improving achievement could be established over at least three years of SAGE participation. All schools served high poverty populations with varying proportions of children of color, English Language Learners, and students with disabilities. In these schools, a total of 27 classrooms with different classroom configurations involving pupil-teacher ratios were chosen based on principal nomination (e.g., 15:1; 30:2 team taught; 30:2 shared space; 30:2 block scheduling). For each classroom, data were generated through half-day observations throughout the 2004-2005 school year, and included field notes, standardized environment descriptions, a collection of instructional and administrative artifacts, surveys of teachers and parents, and interviews with classroom teachers, principals, students, and district administrators. This paper uses data from the SAGE evaluation to analyze a range of early literacy teaching practices in K-3 reduced-sized classrooms. We began by looking at the data in terms of early literacy research and foundations of early literacy success. However, we quickly realized that teachers could be “delivering” forms of “best practice” When size matters 7 (e.g., the delivery of phonemic awareness activities), but still miss the mark in terms of meeting students’ individual needs, interests and knowledge resources. Thus, to analyze the data, we drew upon two distinct bodies of research and theories: early literacy research on foundations of literacy success and sociocultural theories of language and literacy. A combined theoretical approach makes it possible to analyze classroom practices in terms of what we know about early literacy instruction as well as what we know about capitalizing on the social, cultural, and linguistic diversity found in our classrooms (Hammerberg [Hassett], 2004). We outline our theoretical frameworks next, before turning to a further description of our method and choices in this paper. Early Reading Theory Over thirty years of research on young children’s early literacy and language development1 has identified several foundations that are fundamental to children’s early literacy success. We drew on early literacy theories (e.g., Adams, 1990; Allington, 2001; Pressley, 1998; Weaver, 1994) and research reports (e.g., Braunger & Lewis, 1997; CIERA, 1998;