JOURNAL OF INDIAN HISTORY AND CULTURE September 2005 Twelfth Issue C.P. RAMASWAMI AIYAR INSTITUTE OF INDOLOGICAL RESEARCH The C.P. Ramaswami Aiyar Foundation 1, Eldams Road, Alwarpet, Chennai 600 018, INDIA EDITOR Dr. G.J. Sudhakar EDITORIAL BOARD Dr. K.V.Raman Dr. T.K.Venkatasubramaniam Dr. R.Nagaswami Dr. Nanditha Krishna Published by C.P.Ramaswami Aiyar Institute of Indological Research The C.P. Ramaswami Aiyar Foundation 1, Eldams Road, Alwarpet, Chennai 600 018 Tel: 2434 1778 Fax: 91-44-24351022 E-Mail: [email protected] Website: www.cprfoundation.org Subscription Rs.95/- (for 2 issues) Rs.180/- (for 4 issues) CONTENTS Mahisha, The Buffalo Demon .................................................................... 7 Dr. Nanditha Krishna A Study of the Ramayana and Mahabharata .......................................... 11 Dr. S. Kuppusamy Secular and Religious Contribution of Performing Arts............................ 16 Dr. Prof. Mrs. V. Balambal Historiography of Professor K.A. Nilakanta Sastri ................................... 36 Dr. Shankar Goyal Female Functionaries of Medieval South Indian Temples........................ 51 Dr. S. Chandni Bi Society and Land Relation in the Kaveri Delta During the Chola Period A.d. 850–1300 ................................................................... 70 Mr. V. Palanichamy Note on Dutch Documents on Coastal Karnataka 1583–1763 .................. 81 Dr. K.G. Vasantha Madhava India Under the East India Company and the Transition to British Rule ... 85 Dr. Rukmini Nagarajan Kudikaval System in Madurai District ....................................................101 Dr. K.V. Jeyaraj and Mr. P. Jeganathan Articles of Trade, The System of Weights and Measures in Parlakhemundi Under the British Raj (A.d. 1858–1936): A Case Study of the Gajapati District.....................................................108 Dr. N.P. Panigrahi Indian Nationalism: Role of Cuddapah District in the Constructive Activities (1922–30) – A Micro Study ................................116 Dr. G. Samba Siva Reddy The Patriotic Fervour of Bharathi at Cross Roads: The Seizure of his National Songs in Madras Presidency 1928–1929 .............................123 Dr. V. Venkat Raman Educational Reforms of Sri. K. Kamaraj .................................................131 Dr. A. Kumaraswamy History of Fisher Folk and Their Economic Conditions from 1947–1996 .....................................................................................139 Dr. (Mrs) B. Devaki Bai Essential Services Bill: The Impact of Agrarian Resistance in the Madras Presidency, 1949 .......................................................................144 K. Ramesh Kumar Destabilising Apartheid: The Struggle for Social Uplift by the Adi-Dravidas of Tamilnadu ....................................................................154 Dr. P.N. Premalatha Telugu Dalit Literature: A Historical Perspective ...................................163 Dr. Thummapudi Bharathi Non Governmental Organisations in Tamil Nadu - A Historical Perspective ........................................................................168 Dr. S.S. Sundaram Painted Walls, Painted Textiles: Tradition and Continuity ......................179 Swapna Sathish Valuable Contribution to Regional Studies .............................................183 Dr. Mrs. Prema Kasturi printed on paper made from bagasse, an agricultural waste EDITOR’S NOTE The twelfth issue of your journal is in your hands. It is a bulky one. Reasons – to respect our friends and colleagues. But, the next issue is going to be different. It is going to be an annual one and refereed at that as we are graduating to a higher stage i.e. to the national level from a regional level. We need co-operation from our readers and contributors to establish this journal among the top ranking ones in the country. To ensure this we are seeking help of renowned specialists – referees. Regarding this issue, there are several excellent papers. We are carrying Dr. V. Balambal’s impressive lecture delivered at the South Indian History Congress in Calicut. Dr. Shankar Goyal’s piece on ‘Historiography of Professor K.A. Nilakanta Shastri, is a detailed study. Dr. Chandni Bi from Aligarh has sent a brilliant paper entitled ‘Female Functionaries of Medieval South Indian Temples’, like Mr. V. Palanichamy from Pondicherry on ‘Society and Land Relation on the Kaveri Delta during the Chola period’. Dr. K.G. Vasantha Madhava’s contributions as always is commendable on ‘Note on Dutch Documents on Coastal Karnataka 1583-1763’. Dr. Samba Siva Reddy has documented very well the role of Kadapa district in Indian Nationalism during 1922-1930. All other papers are worthy of publication and hence have figured here. We thank all contributors for their effort. Dr. Prema Kasturi deserves special gratitude not only for sending a book review but also for helping us edit this volume. A special word of thanks to Dr. Nanditha Krishna and her staff for all their support and guiding the destiny of this journal. Dr. G.J. Sudhakar 6 Journal of Indian History and Culture MAHISHA, THE BUFFALO DEMON Dr. Nanditha Krishna Hon. Director The C.P. Ramaswami Aiyar Foundation, Chennai Rambha, demon son of ¸rishi Kas´yapa and Danu, mother of the Danavas,@ married a Mahishi (female buffalo). They had a son, Mahisha. Rambha and his wife were killed by a giant buffalo, but the son grew up to become the king of the Mahishas. Mahisha lived in the Vindhya Mountains and, by the practice of severe austerities, gained the strength to drive the gods out of the heavens. So Brahma, Vishn¸u and Siva issued energy (Sakti) from their mouths. The energy united and from it emanated Durga as a beautiful woman with ten arms, riding a lion (sometimes she is depicted riding a tiger). She held each god’s special weapons in each of her ten hands: discus, conch, club, trident, spear, flame, bow, arrow and quiver, snake and the thunderbolt. She had a terrible laugh and roar that shook the earth. Several of Mahisha’s warriors came forward to fight Dev¸@: Chiksura with his army; Udagra, Mahahanu, Siloma, Vaskala and Viralasha with chariots; Parivarita with elephants; and Mahishasura with elephants and horses. She killed each one of them with a different weapon. As Durga approached the Vindhyas, the demon tried to capture her. Unable to do so, he attacked her under several forms, each of which was destroyed by Durga. Finally, he took the form of a buffalo, which she caught with a noose and tied up before transfixing him with a trident, after which she killed him with her sword. (Devi Mahatmyam, Markandeya Purana). Some versions have her tiger mount attacking and killing the demon. There is also a sexual tension between Durga and Mahisha, who was a suitor and wanted to marry her. Mahisha is killed by Karttikeya in the Mahabharata. But this is not the popular perception. Who was Mahisha and is this story merely a legend? Central India, where the Vindhya hills are situated and the legendary scene of the battle, still has buffalo-totem worshippers like the Marias and Gonds. The Todas of the Nilgiri Hills in the south west are also a buffalo- worshipping tribe. Mahisha is closely associated with the town of Mysore (formerly Mahisha- ur), named after him. In fact, it is locally believed that this was where September 2005, Twelfth Issue 7 the goddess killed the demon. Many of his generals take on the goddess, but are killed with a variety of weapons, from stones and trees to bows and arrows, spears and swords, establishing the cultural situation of the war. In fact, it is locally believed that he was a local ruler killed by the goddess, and a huge statue of a mustachioed male figure of Mahisha holding a sword and a snake stands at the foot of the Chamundesvari! Hill, at the top of which stands the temple of Durgâ as Chamund¸@, killer of Mahisha. Whom did the goddess defeat? Less than 100 kilometres from Mysore are the Nilgiri Hills where the Toda tribe lives, a tribe that worships the buffalo as a god and whose origins are shrouded in mystery. The Todas venerate the buffalo, whose horns adorn their temples. The Todas are buffalo herders and, till recently, supplied buffalo milk to the other tribes through a tribal barter system. So sacred are the buffaloes that no other tribe was allowed to own any. The Toda buffaloes are enormous, handsome animals who are fierce fighters if approached by strangers. The Todas also have a tradition of being the palanquin bearers of Ravana, from whose atrocities they fled. It is likely that the Todas were buffalo worshippers who were defeated by the followers of the goddess, and who disappeared into the hills consequent to their defeat. The cairns of the Nilgiris, believed to have been deserted by the Todas, are called moriaru mane ! or house of the Morias. The word could also be synonymous for the buffalo-horn Marias of Central India1. Besides the Nilgiri hills in South India, Central India is also famous for buffalo totem tribes like the Marias and Gonds, who even wear the buffalo horns on festive occasions. The Marias also worship Dantesvar ¸@ Dev¸@, besides the buffalo. Here, both the Goddess and the Buffalo deity are revered. Mahisha is also associated with the town of Mahishamati, situated south of the river Godavari, on a tributary of the river Kr¸shn¸a. It was founded by king Mahishmat, whose name implies that he was rich in buffaloes. The region was ruled by king Nila of Dakshinapatha, and his subjects were called Mahishakas2. This is also the region of the