LEGAL RESPONSES TO TERRORISM WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE POSITION OF KUWAIT By THAQAL SAAD AL-AJMI (LL. B - KUWAIT UNIVERSITY - LL. M - TEMPLE UNIVERSITY) A thesissubmitted in fulfillment of the requirementsfor the degreeof Doctor of Philosophy University of Wales (Aberystwyth) April 2003 DECLARATION This work has not previously been accepted in substance for any degree and is not being concurrentlysubmitted in candidaturefor any degree ThaqalAl-Ajmi STATEMENTl This thesis is the result of my own investigations, except where otherwise stated. Other sources are acknowledged by footnotes giving explicit references. A bibliographyis appended. Thaqal Al-Ajmi STATEMENT2 I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for inter-library loan, and for the title and summary to be made available to outside organizations. II ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS All thanks are due to God for helping me in completing this study. Also, I owe a great debt of gratitude to my mother for her endlessprayers for me to finish this study successfully. Gratitude should be expressedto my brother for being there when I neededanything from my country, Kuwait. Another person that I do not think I will ever be able to thank is my dearest wife who sacrificed every comfort of hers and never stoppedencouraging me to finish this study. In the Law Department,I am indebtedto many people: firstly, a special thanksshould go to ProfessorChristopher Harding, my supervisor,who helpedme and guidedme on my researchof this terrible crime of terrorismthat hasplagued the world in our times. It was he who stoodby me from the beginningof this studyuntil the end. Also, I would like to thank ProfessorRyszard Piotrowicz for his helpful commentsgiven me concerningthis study. Moreover,I would like to thankall thosewho work at the Hugh OwenLibrary as well as thosewho work in the Law Library for being friendly andhelpful. Among them,I would to give a specialappreciation to Lillian who neverrefused any request for help but insteadhas done more than was requested. Among my colleaguesin the school,I would to thank Abdullah Alhayan for introducingme to the universityand helpingme to settlea lot of thingswhen I came to Aberystwythfor the first time. Lastly, I need to thank Reyad Belhoal and AhmedAlmansoori for helpingin subjectsof commoninterest. III ABSTRACT This thesisis intendedto servetwo objectives:The first objectiveis to discuss the various responsesthat can be taken against terrorism which range from the criminalizationof someterrorist actsby the internationalcommunity to the practical measuresStates in the real world are taking againstterrorism on one hand and from peacefulmeasures and coerciveones on the other hand. The questionthen will be whetherthese responses are effectivein deterringterrorism. Had thesedifferent types of responsesworked properly and if the answeris negativewhy not? In otherwords, a critical evaluationof theseresponses will be providedby this thesis. The second objective will be concernedwith Kuwait's perspective on terrorism. However,the discussionthis time will be narrower. It will be concerned with someof the regionalmeasures Kuwait and other Statesin the region resortedto, to counterterrorism. Questionslike: what are thesemeasures; how effectivethey are in suppressingterrorism; and is there any noticeable difference between these measuresand those taken at the global level will be researched.Moreover, discussion about the approachKuwait had used at the national level againstterrorism will be considered. It must be mentionedthat until the momentof this writing there is not any major study that discussesKuwait's ways of dealing with terrorism. More significantly, as an Islamic and Arabic country Kuwait may hold a position or an understandingwith respectto the issue of terrorism different from other countries, especiallythose from the West. Thus,this thesiswill discernsuch a position andan understandingthat may not be well known to manypeople. IV TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONVENTIONS, PROTOCOLS, DRAFT CONVENTIONS, RESOLUTIONS,DECISIONS, AND CONFERENCES IX ................................ TABLE OF CASES xii ........................................................................... TABLE OF STATUTES;ACTS, AND LAWS x1v .......................................... TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS xv ............................................................ CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................... CHAPTER 2. TERRORISM: DIFINITION, CAUSES, AND TYPOLOGIES 9 .......... 2.1. DEFINITIONOF TERRORISM ................................................................ 9 2.1.1.Global Efforts ............................................................................................. 14 2.1.2.Regional Efforts .......................................................................................... 22 2.1.3.National Efforts........................................................................................... 24 2.1.4.Academic Efforts ......................................................................................... 28 2.2.CAUSES OF TERRORISM 34 ...................................................................... 2.3. TYPOLOGIES OF TERRORISM 42 ............................................................... 2.3.L International DomesticTerrorism 42 and ................................................................. 2.3.2.Individual State-SupportedTerrorism 44 and ............................................................ CHAPTER 3: THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINALIZATION OF TERRORISM.. 54 3.1. ANTI-TERRORISM INSTRUMENTS 55 .......................................................... 3.1.1.Conventions Adopted by InternationalCivil Aviation Organization 56 ............................... 3.1.2.Convention Adopted by InternationalAtomic EnergyAgency 65 the ................................ 3.1.3.Conventions Adopted by InternationalMaritime 69 the organization................................ 3.1.4.Conventions Adopted by UnitedNation General Assembly 74 the ................................... 3.2. THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE ANTI-TERRORISM CONVENTIONS 86 ............... 3.2.1. The Features the Anti-Terrorism Conventions 86 of .................................................... 3.2.2. The Shortcomings Anti-Terrorism Conventions 93 of the ............................................. 3.2.3. Enumerative Vs. Eliminative 98 ........................................................................... 3.3. THE USE EXTRADITION IN THE CONTEXT OF TERRORISM 101 ..................... 3.3.1. Political Offence Exception 104 ........................................................................... 3.3.1. L States' Judicial Practices of What Constitutes a Political Offence Vis-a-vis Acts of Terrorism 107 .................................................................................................... 3.3.1.LL United Kingdom 107 ....... ....................................................................... 3.3.1.1.2. United States 110 .................................................................................. V 113 3.3.1.1.3.Switzerland ................................ .................................................... 3.3.1.1A. France ...................................... .................................................. -115 3.3.1.2. 116 TreatyPractice ................................. .................................................... 3.3.1.2.1.Multilateral Treaties 116 ...................... .................................................... 3.3.1.2.2.Regional Treaties 117 ......................... .................................................... 3.3.1.2.3.Bilateral Treaties ýt.120 ......................... .................................................. 3.3.1.3. Exceptions Exception 123 to the .................. .................................................... 3.3.2. Humanitarian Exception 124 ........................... .................................................... 3.3.3.Nationality Exception 125 .................................................................................. 3.3.4.Death Penalty Exception 126 ................................................................................ 3.3.5. Health Age Exception 127 and ...... ..................................................................... 3.3.6. Extradition's Failure Possible Outcomes 129 ............................................................ 3.4. INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT 132 .................................................... CHAPTER 4. PEACEFUL AND PRACTICAL RESPONSESTHAT CAN BE TAKEN AGAINST INTERNATIONAL TERRORISM 140 ................................ 4.1.ASYLUM, 143 BORDERSAND TRAVELDOCUMENTS .................................... 4.2.TERRORIST FUND RAISING 147 .................................................................. 4.2.1.International Convention for Suppression Terrorism 148 the of theFinancing of ....... 4.3.EXCHANGE OF INFORMATION 159 AND INTELLIGENCE.............................. CHAPTER S. THE USE OF MILITARY FORCE ABROAD TO COUNTER INTERNATIONAL TERRORISM 166 .......................................................... 5.1.PEACEFUL RESPONSES FIRST 167 ............................................................. 5.2. LEGAL JUSTIFICATIONSFOR THE INTERNATIONALUSE OF MILITARY 169 FORCEIN COMBATTINGINTERNATIONAL TERRORISM .............................. 170 5.2.1.Self-Defence ............................................................................................. 170 5.2.1.1.Individual Self-Defence