UMI Number: 3225067 UMI Microform 3225067 Copyright 2006 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346 Abstract The question that motivates the present study is this: what theological and historical factors led the Christian Church of the third century to begin calling its leaders “priests”? The goal of this project is to present an explanation for the rise of a Christian priesthood by carefully exploring the Church’s self-understanding in relation both to the broader Roman Empire and to ancient Israel. By examining texts from the first through the early fourth century, I conclude that it is precisely this Christian self-identity (what I term its politico-theological ecclesiology) that influenced the way the Church read Old Testament Levitical texts and appropriated that office as a “type” of Christian leadership. First, the Church understood itself as a distinct polis or ‘culture’ in its own right, an alternative public reality with communally shared stories, rites, customs, and leadership. The development in the church’s understanding of its leadership, then, was part of its development in understanding itself as an alternate society in the Empire. This notion of the church as a ‘culture’ was further nuanced and developed by the rise of a distinctly Christian ‘material culture’ in the early third century, particularly Christian art and architecture. As a result, a new visible Christian ‘sacred space’ emerged, thereby facilitating a re-conceptualization of the bishop as a “priest” who presides over and protects this new ‘sacred space’. Second, the Church understood itself in connection with Israel such that when they looked at the Old Testament narrative, they saw a divine nation corresponding to their own cultural reality in the world. When they looked to the old priesthood, they saw a figure and model for their own leadership. And when they considered their own ministerial leaders, they reflected on the Levitical priestly paradigm as a “type” of the Christian office. Thus, this new society of the Church was perceived as nothing less than the renewed nation of Israel. As an awareness of a newly emerging Christian material culture combined with this ecclesiological self-identity, it created the ideal context in which the Levitical priesthood was appropriated as a working typology for the Christian ministerial leadership. Dedication To my friend, companion, and loving wife, Jen, for her unwavering support, constant encouragement and genuine interest in my work. And to my children, Eowyn and Riley, for their unquestioning love and regular (though sometimes unrequested) visits to my office— tangible reminders of what is most important. Table of Contents Chapter 1: Introduction: The Rise of a Christian Ministerial Priesthood?.…………1 State of the Question………………………………………………………………2 Emulation of a Pagan Priesthood………………………………………….2 Representation of Christ’s Priesthood…………………………………….6 Eucharist as Sacrifice……………………………………………………...9 Politico-Theological Ecclesiology: A Way Forward……………………………17 Church as a Culture or Polis…………………………………..…………18 A Christian Material Culture…………………………………...………..22 Continuity with Israel………………………………………...………….23 The Task of the Present Study………………………………..…………………29 Chapter 2: “Guardians of Sacred Space”: Tertullian of Carthage…………………35 A Christian Ministerial Priesthood.............…………………………………..….35 The Church as a polis in continuity with Israel………………………………….42 Emerging Christian Material Culture……………………………………………46 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….…53 Chapter 3: “Attendants of the Lord”: The Apostolic Tradition…………..…………55 Background of The Apostolic Tradition…………………………………………56 Dating…………………………………………………………………....57 Provenance………………………………………………………………61 The Text of The Apostolic Tradition…………………………………….62 Summary….…………………………………………………………..…63 A Ministerial Priesthood in the Ordination Prayers..……………………………64 Continuity with Israel……………………………………………………………72 Christian Material Culture……………………………………………………….81 Literary Evidence………………………………………………………..82 Archaeological Evidence……………………………………………..…87 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….96 Chapter 4: “Stewards of God’s House”: The Didascalia Apostolorum………….…99 Background to the Didascalia Apostolorum………………………………..……99 Dating and Provenance…………….………………………………..…...99 Textual Issues………………………………………………...…………………100 Genre……………………………………………………………………102 Priestly Depictions of the Christian Bishop…………………………………….103 Eucharist as Sacrifice?..........................................................................................109 Politico-Theological Ecclesiology……………………………………………....113 Continuity with Israel…………………………………………………...113 Jewish-Christian Relations: A Political Ecclesiology……………….….118 A Christian Material Culture…………………………………………………….126 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….134 Chapter 5: “Rulers of the Divine Nation”: Origen of Alexandria………………….136 A Christian Priesthood………………………………………………………….139 Functions of the Bishop-Priest………………………………………………….144 Teaching………………………………………………………………...144 Sacrifice………………………………………………………………...148 The Word as Sacrifice …………………………………………………..150 Spiritual Leadership…………………………………………………….152 Ecclesiological Hermeneutics…………………………………………………..157 Old Testament as Book of the Church………………………………….157 Continuity with Israel and its History…………………………………..159 A Typology of Priesthood………………………………………………161 The “Culture” of the Church……………………………………………………167 The Church as Polis…………………………………………………….167 A Christian Material Culture…………………………………………...170 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………...174 Chapter 6: “Ministers of the Altar, Leaders of the Church”: Cyprian of Carthage……………………………………..…………...176 A Christian Ministerial Priesthood……………………………………………..177 Liturgical Leaders of the Church……………………………………….183 Administrative Rulers of the Church…………………………………...188 Politico-Theological Ecclesiology: Continuity with Israel……………………..195 A Christian Material Culture…………………………………………………...203 Archaeological Evidence……………………………………………….204 Literary Evidence………………………………………………………206 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………..210 Chapter 7: “Priests of God’s Holy Temple”: Eusebius of Caesarea……………….212 Priesthood and History: Dedication of the Church at Tyre……………………..213 Continuity with Israel…………………………………………………………..218 Christian Material Culture……………………………………………………...222 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………...226 Chapter 8: Bridging the Gap: Early Trajectories of Priestly Ideas……………..…233 Priestly Ideas in the Early Church?....................................................................233 Continuity with Israel………………………………………………………….245 The Church as a “Culture” or Polis……………………………………………248 Politico-Theological Ecclesiology and the Priesthood………………………..257 Summary of the Present Study………………………………………………..262 Bibliography………………………………………………………………………….268 1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION In discussing the rise of a Christian ministerial “priesthood” in the early Church, it has often been noted, and assiduously repeated, that the New Testament never designates any Christian leader as a “priest” (hiereus).1 By the end of the third century, however, the terms hiereus (in the East) and sacerdos (in the West) are used to designate the bishop and/or the presbyter in a universally accepted way. Yet, in observing the end of the third century as a tertium ad quem for this general ecclesiastical development, a number of questions remain. When did this designation first appear, and how well accepted was it at the outset? More fundamental, why did the term “priest” arise in the Church to designate the Christian minister, especially when the New Testament era seems to remain silent on that very count? Was the Church creating something ex-nihilo to assert a new understanding of Christian leadership, or was it developing pre-existing understandings? From what model(s) did they derive both the designation (hiereus/sacerdos) and the understanding of roles and functions for the Christian leader? 1 For example, P.M. Gy, “Notes on the Early Terminology of Christian Priesthood” in The Sacrament of Holy Orders: Some papers and discussions concerning holy orders at a session of the Centre de pastorale liturgique, 1955 (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1962), 98; Maurice Bevenot, “Tertullian’s Thoughts about the Christian ‘Priesthood’” in Corona Gratiarum, vol 1 (Brugge: Sint Pietersabdij, 1975), 126; Karl Rahner et al., eds., Sacramentum Mundi, vol. 5 (New York : Herder & Herder, 1970),S.v. “Priest”, 97; R.P.C. Hanson, Christian Priesthood Examined (Guildford: Lutterworth Press, 1979), 35;.Carl Volz, Pastoral Life and Practice in the Early Church (Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1990), 32; J.B. Lightfoot, The Christian Ministry, (New York, Whittaker, 1878), 12; J.A.T. Robinson, On Being the Church in the World (London: S.C.M. Press, 1960), 72; James Burtchaell, From Synagogue to Church: Public services and offices in the earliest Christian communities (New York: Cambridge U.P., 1992), 322; James Mohler, The Origin and Evolution of the Priesthood (Staten Island, NY: Alba House, 1970), 31; Jean-Paul Audet, Structures of Christian Priesthood: A study of home, marriage, and celibacy in the pastoral service of the church, trans. Rosemary Sheed (New York: Macmillan, 1968), 81-82. 2 State of the Question Questions about the rise of a ministerial priesthood receive no shortage of