EXPLORATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE ORIGINS, NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE SUFI MOVEMENT IN AUSTRALIA A dissertation submitted to the School of History, Philosophy, Religion, and Classics, University of Queensland in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy By Celia Anne Genn, B.A.(Qld), M.Th.(Pass with Merit) (Sydney) January 2004 DECLARATION The work presented in the thesis is, to the best of my knowledge and belief, original and my own work, except as acknowledged in the text. This material has not been submitted, either in whole or in part, for a degree at this or any other university. Celia Anne Genn ii ABSTRACT Between 1910 and 1926, Hazrat Inayat Khan, a musician and Sufi master from the Chishtiyya order in India, introduced Sufism to the United States of America and Europe. He established a Western Sufi order, the International Sufi Movement, with groups in America, England, and across Europe. In the early 1930s this Western Sufism was introduced into Australia. The aim of this study is to explore and analyse the origins, nature and development of the Sufi Movement in Australia with particular attention to the relationship between the spiritual teacher and the disciple. The study, in its various aspects, and as a whole, makes a contribution to understanding religious change, religion and New Religious Movements in Australia, Sufism in the West and the murshid-mureed relationship. Using what has been termed a “dynamic of religions” framework and Baumann’s model of religious adaptation in cross-cultural circumstances, the study employs a combination of in-depth fieldwork, participant observation, interviews and historiography to identify and analyse both continuity and change in Sufi Movement groups in contemporary Australia. The study found that the early phases of transplantation from India to Europe and America, as well as the struggles within the group after the death of Inayat Khan, substantially shaped the Western Sufism that arrived in Australia. The most significant early adaptations included redefining the relationship between Sufism and exoteric Islam, gender equality, formation of a formal organisation, and the use of music to spread the Sufi Message. Addressing issues identified in the literature on the master-disciple relationship in Eastern traditions in the West, the study describes and analyses the murshid-mureed (master-disciple, spiritual teacher-student) relationship in Inayat Khan’s time, and in contemporary Australia. It shows that Sufism’s development in the West has been interconnected with understandings and practice of this central relationship. The study shows that the continued strength of the murshid-mureed relationship alongside emerging alternatives, the factors affecting change generally in the Sufi Movement, as well as the growing popularity of Sufism in Australia, demonstrate iii the need to consider not only East-West aspects of transplantation, but also the influences of modernity on spiritual traditions. As well as documenting the Australian history, the study describes the details of the variety of practices and rituals, forms of community and organisation, and forms of the murshid-mureed relationship, found in contemporary Australian groups. This provides insight into the intricacies of Sufi practice in Australia and provides a basis for comparison with other groups. Sufi practice within these groups in Australia includes highly innovative developments alongside preservation of the tradition as taught by Inayat Khan. It also reflects a tension between the spiritual and organisational hierarchy, and concerns for democracy and local autonomy. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS A large number of people have contributed to this study. My supervisors, Dr Lynne Hume and Dr Julia Howell have given invaluable assistance in very many ways. I would particularly like to thank them for their encouragement to pursue issues of interest and for their enthusiasm for my topic. Extra special thanks to Barbara Bowler and to Jack and Helen Genn for their on- going support and encouragement throughout this project. I also want to specially mention and thank Miona Acton, Virya Best, Georgia Carr, Susan de Campo, Safa Hull, Kara Jacob, Ray Kerkhove, Susan MacFarlane, Bill Metcalf, Hakim Oerton, and Michelle Spuler for providing information, support, and assistance. The study was made possible by the willing participation of teachers and students in the Sufi Movement in Australia and Inayati orders world-wide, by the support of the Heartcentre leaders and community, and by the willingness of the Avatar’s Abode community to share their records and stories. I would like to thank them all for their co-operation and contributions to this study. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page DECLARATION ii ABSTRACT iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v CHAPTER ONE OVERVIEW, RESEARCH AIMS and DESIGN 1 Research Aims and Framework 3 Theoretical Framework 4 Dynamic of Religions 4 Context and Literature Review 9 Sufism in the West 9 The Master-Disciple Relationship 14 Research Questions 21 Main Research Question 21 Subsidiary Research Questions 21 Research Design 21 Methodology 22 Subjects 24 Data Collection Methods 27 Thesis Structure 30 Further Information 32 CHAPTER TWO THE ORIGINS OF WESTERN SUFISM 33 Sufism 34 The Chishtiyya Order 43 The Murshid-Mureed Relationship in Sufism in India 53 Summary, Review, Comment 63 CHAPTER THREE THE INTERNATIONAL SUFI MOVEMENT AND SUFI MESSAGE 66 Founder Hazrat Inayat Khan 68 Background 68 Work in the West 73 Sufi Teachings 76 Establishment of the International Sufi Movement (ISM) 81 The Sufi Order or Esoteric School 82 The Universal Worship 83 The Brotherhood 83 Spiritual Healing 83 Zirat or Symbology 84 Developments after Hazrat Inayat Khan 84 Growth and Schism 84 American Branches 86 vi European Branch 89 Return to India 92 Summary, Review, Comment 95 CHAPTER FOUR THE EARLY MURSHID MUREED RELATIONSHIP – RESPONSES AND CHALLENGES 101 The Murshid Mureed Relationship as taught by Inayat Khan 102 Early Mureeds 113 Responses of Early Mureeds 114 Challenges and Adaptations 122 Summary, Review, Comment 130 CHAPTER FIVE HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF WESTERN SUFISM IN AUSTRALIA 134 A False Start (1927–1950) 135 Baron Friedrick Elliot von Frankenberg und Ludwigsdorf (Shaikh Momin) and the Sufi Society 135 The Meher Baba Schism 145 Reviewing the “False Start” 150 Founding the Sufi Movement in Australia (1950-1990) 151 Dr Karel Frederik Rechlien Jansen (Murshid Sharif) 151 Relations with the International Sufi Movement 157 Teaching style and mureed experiences 159 Reviewing Sufism in Australia under Sharif Jansen 163 Transition 163 Summary, Review, Comment 167 CHAPTER SIX THE WESTERN SUFI COMMUNITY IN AUSTRALIA AND ITS EVOLVING ORGANISATION 170 Community Composition and Membership 170 Sufi Order International (SOI) 171 Sufi Ruhaniat International (SRI) 171 Dances of Universal Peace (DUP) 171 Federation of the Sufi Message 172 Sufi Movement in Australia (SMIA) 173 Heartcentre 180 Community Organisation 183 International context 183 Leadership – SMIA 184 National Representative 187 The Council 188 The Secretariat 188 The General Assembly 188 Centre Leaders 189 Brotherhood/ Sisterhood Representatives 189 vii The Constitution 189 Leadership – Heartcentre 192 Recruitment 194 Funding 195 Ethics 196 Centres and Activities 197 Annual Summer School 200 Relations with the Wider Sufi community 203 Cyber Sufism 205 Summary, Review, Comment 207 CHAPTER SEVEN THE CONTEMPORARY MURSHID-MUREED RELATIONSHIP IN AUSTRALIA AND BEYOND 209 The Contemporary Relationship 210 Finding a teacher 212 Initiation 213 The Relationship – Benefits 216 The Relationship – Problems and Issues 221 Heartcentre 228 Alternatives to the Relationship 230 Discussion 232 Summary, Review, Comment 237 CHAPTER EIGHT PRACTICES AND RITUALS IN WESTERN SUFISM IN AUSTRALIA 240 Practices and Rituals 241 The Universal Worship Activity 241 The Universal Worship Service 242 The Confraternity 247 The Esoteric School or Sufi Order 248 Metaphysical study 249 Practices 251 Prayer 251 Breathing practices 252 Wazifa 253 Zikar 255 Other Practices 257 The Spiritual Healing Activity 258 The Zirat (Mystical Symbology) Activity 261 Retreat 262 Summary, Review Comment 263 viii CHAPTER NINE THE CONDUCT, PROGRESS AND OUTCOMES OF THE STUDY: SUMMARY, REVIEW, COMMENT 265 Analytic, Theoretical, Systematic Discussion of the Thesis Progress and Outcomes 265 Suggestions for Further Research 275 Concluding Remarks and Comment 277 APPENDICES 279 Appendix A List of Commonly Used Abbreviations 279 Appendix B Glossary of Terms 280 Appendix C Administrative Structure of the International Sufi Movement 285 Appendix D Ten Sufi Thoughts 287 BIBLIOGRAPHY 288 ix .