Component-I (A) – Personal details: 1 Component-I (B) – Description of module: Subject Name Indian Culture Paper Name Outlines of Indian History Muslim invasions on India (Arabs, Ghazni and Module Name/Title Ghor) Module Id I C/ OIH / 19 Early medieval history of the Indian subcontinent, Pre-requisites political, social and religious development, rise and spread of Islam. To know about the political developments in Objectives Indian subcontinent in early medieval period, the Arab conquest of Sindh, Mahmud Ghazni and Ghor invasions on India and its impact. Keywords Islam / Arab / Khalifa / Sindh / Mahmud of Ghazni / Muhammad of Ghor E-text (Quadrant-I) 1. Introduction In the early medieval age India was on the threshold of phenomenal changes in the domains of polity, economy, society and culture. The cultural traits, art and architecture, and the temple-centered devotional movement under Alvars and Nayanars, in peninsular India of Tamil Nadu were creating a new social ethos in the stratified Indian social organization. Politically, there were many powerful Hindu kingdoms in Indian subcontinent, which constantly fought against each other for fame and extension of territories. Many of them were quit extensive and powerful, but, because of their internal conflicts, none of them could utilize its complete resources, nor do they unite themselves. During this period Afghanistan was ruled by two Hindu kingdoms of Jabul and Kabul. While regionalism was taking deep roots on the Indian soil, many significant events were taking place in Europe and Asia in the post-Harsha era, which directly and indirectly influenced the course of our history. At that juncture a new power born on the Arabian soil professing a different faith, Islam, entered India as a political power in the 8th century CE. 2. The Arabs and Islam : Prophet Muhammad of Arabia was the founder of Islam. He was born in 570 CE at Mecca in Arabia and passed away in 632 CE. He propagated the Islam both by peace and war. With the rise and spread of Islam, many new things came to be associated with them. In politics all Muslims formed one congregation of the faithful. Islam inspired a war like sprit and national consciousness among the Arabs who decided to spread their new religion and carry on military conquest all over the world. Within a century, the Arabs established a vast empire which extended from the Atlantic sea in the West to banks of the river Indus in the East and from the Caspian Sea in the North to the valley of the river Nile in the South. The successors of Prophet Muhammad were called Khalifa (Caliphs). The first Khalifa was Muhammads father-in-law Abu Bekar. He became the civic head of the Islam and in course of time he came to be regarded as the Deputy of Allah on the earth invested with the spiritual and temporal powers. Omar was the second Khalifa. It was during the Caliphate of Omar the head quarters of the Khalifa was shifted to Demascus, the first capital of the Muhammadan 2 empire. Afterwards the Arabs built Baghdad near the ruins of Babylon and started the conquest of the world. It was during the time of Omar the Arabs thought of conquering Sindh region in India. 3. Causes for the Arabs Conquest of Sindh : It is generally believed that the Muslims first came to India in the 8th Century CE. when the Arab invasion of Sindh took place. In fact the Arabs had contacts with India prior to their attack. They were carrying on trade and commerce with Malabar coast of India. The rise of Islam in the beginning of 7th Century CE gave a new direction and dynamism to the political mobility of the Arabs. Afterwards with the growth of their military power their ambition also grew and they desire to capture territories in India. The historians attributed several causes that prompted the Arabs to conquer Sindh and following are some of them. To spread Islam was the primary cause. The propagation of Islam by force had been the aim of all the Khalifas. The attack on Sindh was also a part of that policy. Secondly, the Khalifas were not only the heads of Islamic faith, but also heads of Islamic state. Therefore, like all powerful rulers they also desire to extend their empire. The attack on Sindh was also a part of expansionist policy. Thirdly, the Arabs, having trade relations with India, knew that India was a rich country and land of honey and milk. Thus, the fabulous wealth of India tempted the Arabs to think of the conquest of Sindh. The immediate and primary cause of their attack was trade and commerce, the sea- pirates of Sindh attacked and looted certain Arab ships. Thus, to check the piratical activities and to safe guard the commercial interests, the Arabs invaded Sindh. 3.1 Arab Invasions on Sindh : The first attack of the Arabs on Indian territories took place in 636 CE. During the Caliphate of Omar, a novel expedition was sent to capture Thana near Bombay. This attempt ended as failure. Pulakesin II, the early Chalukyan king, drove the Arabs back. Afterwards, they made frequent attempts to get some foot hold in India through both Sea and Land. The second expedition was sent by Omar in the year 644 CE and this was by land through Makran Coast into Western Sindh. In this connection the Pratihara king Nagabhatta I, foiled the attempt of the Arabs. In the mean while the Caliphate became hereditary and it came under the control of the Umayyad dynasty i.e. from 661 to 750 CE. In the 711 CE an expedition was sent by Hajjaj, the Muslim Governor of Iraq, under the command of the most dynamic person Muhammad- bin-Qasim. The invasion of Sindh took place on the pretext of a very insignificant event. Historians have expressed different opinion regarding the incident. The ruler of Iraq demanded that the Raja of Sindh, punish the pirates, when the king refused to yield to the demand, Muhammad-bin-Qasim, the son-in-law of the Governor of Iraq came with army. This invasion and conquest of Sindh was supported by the Khalifa. Muhammad Qasim successfully attacked and occupied Debal, an important port located in the kingdom of Dahir, the most powerful ruler in the Sindh region. Then he conquered Nerun, Siwistan and few other strongholds. Afterwards, the Arabs defeated the army of Dahir in the battles fought at Brahamanabad and Alor. In 713 CE, Muhammad proceeded to attack Multan, after few serious engagements with the enemies; he reached Multan and besieged the fort. As a consequence of these victories the entire Sindh region, Punjab regions along the Indus River came under the control of Arabs. Muhammad, the conqueror of Sindh, could not live long after his successful campaigns. He met a tragic and miserable death because of the shrewd manipulation of Raja Dahir's daughter Suryadevi. The new Khalifa Sulaiman ordered the execution of Qasim. 3 3.2 Causes for the success of Arabs : Primarily the internal weakness of Sindh region was responsible for its fall. Geographically Sindh was isolated from the rest of India and consequently no ruler of North India took any interest in Sindh. The salinity and lack of fertility of the soil hampered the economic stability of the ruler of Sindh. They could not maintain a strong army to meet the challenges forced by the Arabs. The unpopularity of Dahir also helped the Arabs. Lack of foresight on the part of Dahir was responsible for his defeat. The superior commandership of Muhammad-bin-Qasim, the religious zeal of the Arabs and their better arms and military tactics were certainly responsible for their success. 3.3 The Arabs in Sindh after Muhammad : The Arabs failed to penetrate further into India. The Arab’s thirst for further conquests was put to an end by the valiant efforts of the Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas in western India, while the Gurjara Pratiharas stopped their conquests in northern India. In 750 CE. the Abbasids replaced Umayyads as Khalifas. It led to the conflicts among the Arabs officers in Sindh. Ultimately the power of the Khalifas weakened and they failed to keep control over their distant provinces. Till 871 CE Sindh along with Punjab was under the direct control of the Khalifa but in that year the rulers declared their independence and lived in peace with the Hindus. The Arabs, no doubt conquered Sindh, but they could not enjoy their control over that region for a long time. About the Arab conquest of Sindh Stanley Lane Poole observes “The Arabs had conquered Sindh but the conquest was only an episode in the history of India and Islam, a triumph without results”. 3.4 Impact of Arab Conquest : Politically this was not a great event and yet it left an impact on the Arab culture. The Arab conquest of Sindh did not lead to the establishment of close cultural relations between Arabs and the rest of India. The Arab rule in Sind led to the mingling of two essentially different cultures and the Arab culture got enriched by the Hindu culture and civilization. R.C. Majumdar states: The Arabs acquired from the Hindus some new knowledge in Indian religion, philosophy, medicine, mathematics, astronomy and folklore and carried not only to their own land but also to Europe. An important factor is that the Arab settled in some of the regions which came under their control. The Arab settlements in Sindh and Multan made Islam a part and parcel of Indian religious life, though confined to a part of the country only, to begin with.