ASSESSMENT, EVALUATION, AND SIGNIFICANCE: A MANAGEMENT PLAN FOR TUNNA’ NOSI’ KAIVA’ GWAA A Thesis Presented to the faculty of the Department of Anthropology California State University, Sacramento Submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS in Anthropology by Angela K. Calloway SUMMER 2013 © 2013 Angela K. Calloway ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii ASSESSMENT, EVALUATION, AND SIGNIFICANCE: A MANAGEMENT PLAN FOR TUNNA’ NOSI’ KAIVA’ GWAA A Thesis by Angela K. Calloway Approved by: __________________________________, Committee Chair David W. Zeanah, Ph.D. __________________________________, Second Reader Michael G. Delacorte, Ph.D. ____________________________ Date iii Student: Angela Calloway I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University format manual, and that this thesis is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to be awarded for the thesis. __________________________, Graduate Coordinator___________________ Michael G. Delacorte, Ph.D. Date Department of Anthropology iv Abstract of ASSESSMENT, EVALUATION, AND SIGNIFICANCE: A MANAGEMENT PLAN FOR TUNNA’ NOSI’ KAIVA’ GWAA By Angela K. Calloway A mesa within the Humboldt-Toiyabe National Forest (Bridgeport Ranger District) named Tunna’ Nosi’ Kaiva’ Gwaa is rich with features associated with both pronghorn and pine nut procurement. It is inferred that prehistoric use of the area spans at least 7000 years and several sites are representative of the protohistoric era. This thesis identifies research and cultural themes incorporated into a management plan for Tunna’ Nosi’ Kaiva’ Gwaa. The themes underpinning the management plan set the framework for future studies including eligibility evaluation. It is recommended that Tunna’ Nosi’ Kaiva’ Gwaa be nominated as a District on the National Register of Historic Places, ensuring its preservation and protection as mandated by Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act. _______________________, Committee Chair David W. Zeanah, Ph.D. _______________________ Date v DEDICATION I dedicate this thesis in honor of my newborn daughter, Ellery Quinn Calloway and in memory of my grandmother, Mary Bell Harrison. vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am indebted to many individuals instrumental in my completion of this thesis. I was starting to question if I would ever finish, but the support of family, friends, and my committee encouraged me to not give up. My committee, David Zeanah and Michael Delacorte, provided guidance and advice along the way including editorial and contextual expertise. I am extremely grateful for their continual support. Thanks to Cliff Shaw, if it were not for him exposing me to the great “Tunna’ Nosi’,” I would probably still be struggling with a thesis topic. Cliff’s dedication to the area is remarkable, volunteering his time for years piecing together the “Tunna’ Nosi’” puzzle. Cliff has been supporting me since day one, always available for advice and I could always count on him to keep me in check. Jack Scott, the BRD archaeologist when I started this project, allowed me to pursue my thesis research on the Forest and whose support also never waivered. Thanks to Brian Wickstrom for providing obsidian hydration readings at no cost. My in-laws, Chris and Roger Calloway, for their hard work in the field (and Chris’s editorial expertise). Tom Mills provided helpful advice and his field expertise. In addition, I want to thank the support of the USFS and Caltrans. A special thanks to my husband, Brent Calloway, who endured numerous weekends away from his “mountains” to assist me in the field. He provided his GIS vii expertise and has patiently stood by me while I consistently claimed, “I’m almost finished.” I swear…I’m finally finished…now let’s go hike! Lastly, I am forever grateful for my cultural mother, Kathleen Heath. She has always believed in me and encouraged me. Her support and guidance through the years has shaped the person I am today. I am extremely thankful for all the time she has invested in me, especially during “the thesis”. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Dedication .......................................................................................................................... vi Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... vii List of Tables .....................................................................................................................xv List of Figures .................................................................................................................. xvi List of Maps .................................................................................................................... xvii Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................................1 The Study Area ............................................................................................................... 3 Previous Research in the Study Area .............................................................................. 8 Research Potential of the Study Area ........................................................................... 11 Developing a Management Plan ................................................................................... 12 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 14 2. PROJECT CONTEXT: PALEOENVIRONMENT, PREHISTORY, HISTORY, AND …ETHNOGRAPHY..........................................................................................................15 Paleoenvironment ......................................................................................................... 15 Cultural Chronology ..................................................................................................... 16 Mojave Period (pre-5950 BP) ................................................................................... 16 Little Lake Period (5950-3150 BP)........................................................................... 17 Newberry Period (3150 -1350 BP) ........................................................................... 18 ix Haiwee Period (1350 -650 BP) ................................................................................. 21 Marana Period (650 BP – Contact) ........................................................................... 21 Ethnography: The Mono-Paiute .................................................................................... 22 Contact Period (ca. 1800-1900) .................................................................................... 24 Euro-American History(ca. 1826) ................................................................................ 26 Aurora ....................................................................................................................... 28 Bodie ......................................................................................................................... 29 Roads......................................................................................................................... 29 Lumbering ................................................................................................................. 31 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 31 3. RESEARCH THEMES: COMMUNAL PRONGHORN HUNTING, PINYON …UTILIZATION, AND ACCULTURATION.................................................................33 Research Theme I: Communal Pronghorn Hunting ..................................................... 33 Pronghorn Ecology and Environment ....................................................................... 34 Pronghorn Hunting Methods and Archaeological Indicators ................................... 36 Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Trap Complexes ............................................ 38 Tunna’ Nosi’ Kaiva’ Gwaa ....................................................................................... 41 Discussion ................................................................................................................. 42 Research Theme II: Pinyon Utilization ........................................................................ 46 Environment and Distribution................................................................................... 46 Spatial and Temporal Variation in the Great Basin and California .......................... 47 x Residential versus Logistical .................................................................................... 48 Archaeological Indicators ......................................................................................... 49 Tunna’ Nosi’ Kaiva’ Gwaa ....................................................................................... 51 Discussion ................................................................................................................. 52 Research Theme III: Acculturation ............................................................................... 54 Acculturation............................................................................................................. 54 Mono Region ............................................................................................................ 56 Tunna’ Nosi’ Kaiva’ Gwaa ......................................................................................