Duquesne University Duquesne Scholarship Collection Electronic Theses and Dissertations Spring 5-8-2020 Agency, Identity, and Authority in Rwanda: 1950s Political Rhetoric as a Bridge to Post-Colonial Genocide Amanda E. Rollinson Follow this and additional works at: https://dsc.duq.edu/etd Part of the African History Commons Recommended Citation Rollinson, A. E. (2020). Agency, Identity, and Authority in Rwanda: 1950s Political Rhetoric as a Bridge to Post-Colonial Genocide (Master's thesis, Duquesne University). Retrieved from https://dsc.duq.edu/etd/ 1889 This One-year Embargo is brought to you for free and open access by Duquesne Scholarship Collection. It has been accepted for inclusion in Electronic Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Duquesne Scholarship Collection. AGENCY, IDENTITY, AND AUTHORITY IN RWANDA: 1950s POLITICAL RHETORIC AS A BRIDGE TO POST-COLONIAL GENOCIDE A Thesis Submitted to the McAnulty Graduate School of Liberal Arts Duquesne University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts By Amanda E. Rollinson May 2020 Copyright by Amanda E. Rollinson 2020 AGENCY, IDENTITY, AND AUTHORITY IN RWANDA: 1950s POLITICAL RHETORIC AS A BRIDGE TO POST-COLONIAL GENOCIDE By Amanda E. Rollinson Approved on 31 March 2020 ___________________________ ___________________________ Robin P. Chapdelaine, PhD Andrew T. Simpson, PhD Assistant Professor of History Assistant Professor of History (Thesis Director) (Thesis Reader) ___________________________ ___________________________ Kristine L. Blair, Dean John C. Mitcham, PhD Dean, McAnulty College and Graduate Chair, Department of History School of Liberal Arts (Committee Member) iii ABSTRACT AGENCY, IDENTITY, AND AUTHORITY IN RWANDA: 1950s POLITICAL RHETORIC AS A BRIDGE TO POST-COLONIAL GENOCIDE By Amanda E. Rollinson May 2020 Thesis supervised by Robin P. Chapdelaine, Ph.D. During the Rwandan genocide, Hutu targeted Tutsi and allies. Interpreting this complex event requires examining the late 1950s. Analyzing Tutsi and Hutu in central Rwanda in 1957 improves understanding of political and social context preceding the genocide. This study rejects that the genocide occurred as an inevitable event. Instead, it layers domestic actors with international groups: the White Fathers missionaries; the United Nations; Belgium; and the United States. Analyzing each group and synthesizing their interactions elevates Rwanda’s history from the falsehood of ancient adversaries to a complex, modern narrative. Studying Rwandan rhetoric and responses to it provides an opportunity to display and study Rwandan agency and identity. This research analyzes sources from Tutsi and the Hutu perspectives, the White Fathers, the UN Visiting Mission, and Belgian reports. It provides a complex understanding of each group’s actions. The study concludes by integrating the 1994 genocide, iv therefore presenting a nuanced view of identity and group dynamics in this transformative time of Rwandan history. v DEDICATION To John for your constant support through the entirety of this journey. To Maria, Dave, Amos, and Neil for weekly dinners that routinely fueled me for the week. To Ray and to Will, my mentors, for your support and humor. To my parents, Pat and Marcella, who had to fight for their education and have always supported me during mine. vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The writer thanks the Duquesne University Department of History and the McAnulty College of Liberal Arts for their financial support for conference travel. She also thanks the United Nations Dag Hammarskjöld library and the Library of Congress for their patient assistance with inquiries and digitizing thousands of pages of records; the University of Pittsburgh library, Duquesne University’s Gumberg Library, and the Carnegie Public Libraries of Pittsburgh for their gracious sharing of time and collections. The writer also thanks the Zoryan Institute’s Genocide and Human Rights University Program, without which the expression and refinement of the ideas of this project would not have been possible. Special thanks to local Pittsburgh artist, Maria Mangano, for her training, recommendations, and use of her tools to produce the map in this thesis. Lastly, the writer thanks the United States Army’s Advanced Civil Schooling program for their financial support that provides opportunities for Army officers like herself to execute graduate studies. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................................... iv DEDICATION ..................................................................................................................................... vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................................................vii GLOSSARY......................................................................................................................................... ix Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... xi Hutu and Tutsi: Elaborate Origins .................................................................................................... xiv Colonial Transition .......................................................................................................................... xvii Exceptionalism of Sources................................................................................................................. xx Historiography ................................................................................................................................. xxi Overview ....................................................................................................................................... xxxi Chapter 1: The White Fathers in Kabgayi, 1900 – 1956 ................................................................... 1 Evangelization..................................................................................................................................... 4 Political Manipulation ....................................................................................................................... 10 Social Justice Work ........................................................................................................................... 14 Chapter 2: The Conseil Supérieur du Pays in Nyanza, 1954-1957 ................................................. 18 “Mise au Point” ................................................................................................................................. 23 Chapter 3: The Hutu évolués in Kabgayi – 1930 – 1958 ................................................................ 36 The Hutu Manifesto .......................................................................................................................... 44 Rwandan Political Leadership Responds............................................................................................ 51 Chapter 4: The UN, Belgium and the US Respond, 1954-1960 ...................................................... 55 Conclusion........................................................................................................................................... 79 BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................................................................................... 88 viii GLOSSARY Corvée: French – a term found in French and Belgian imperial documents used to refer to forced labor, especially labor for a colonial superior by colonized peoples in a specific territory. Also used to refer to forced labor in Rwanda, including prior to colonialism. Évolués: French – a pejorative colonial term used within Belgian colonies literally meaning ‘the evolved,’ meaning that the referenced group had ‘evolved’ out of their native state ‘into civilization’, and usually implied European education. In Ruanda-Urundi, the term could apply to either Hutu or Tutsi. Used in this thesis to maintain consistency with existing scholarship. Hutu: Kinyarwandan – ethnic group in Rwanda and Burundi, distinct from a clan, with several centuries of dynamic lineage. In 1950s Rwanda, Hutu were the majority, approximately 85%, of the population; usually referenced in combination with Tutsi and Twa. (singular: mahutu, plural: bahutu) Mwami: Kinyarwandan –term for ‘king’ in Ruanda-Urundi (plural: Bami) Ruanda-Urundi: from 1922-1962, the name of the colonial territory approximately equating the twentieth century nation-states of Rwanda and Burundi. Previous to then, part of the German colonial region of German East Africa. Rwanda: the nation-state recognized in 1962 by the United Nations as independent. Throughout this thesis, occasionally used as short-hand to maintain focus on central-southern area in the contemporary area of Rwanda and not imply the entire colonial mandate. Trusteeship Council of the United Nations: a council established in chapters XII and XIII in the founding Charter of the United Nations. Assigned oversight over Trust Territories (former colonies) and the territories’ Administering Authorities (the metropole). Conducted visits to the Trust Territories every three years to inspect status and identify progress towards either self- governance or independence, as the Council deemed feasible. Tutsi: Kinyarwandan – ethnic group in Rwanda and Burundi, distinct from a clan, with several