The interaction between the African elephant (Loxodonta africana africana) and the African honey bee (Apis mellifera scutellata) and its potential application as an elephant deterrent A thesis submitted to the University of Oxford for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Zoology Lucy E. King Balliol College 2010 Declaration: This thesis was supported by a joint ESRC/NERC studentship grant. The proposed blend of the two research fields has been adhered to, creating an interdisciplinary thesis with a 65% emphasis on Natural Science and a 35% emphasis on Social Science. I confirm that this thesis is all my own work, unless otherwise stated, and with the exception of three data analyses in Chapter 3. These analyses, and assistance with the data collection, were conducted by my colleague Dr Joseph Soltis from the Bioacoustic Laboratory at Disney’s Animal Kingdom, Education and Science Department, Florida. Specifically, the data analyses Dr Soltis conducted were: Section 3.2.1. Analysis of 120 infant (0-3 year old) zoo elephant calf vocalisations from Disney’s acoustic database to help us identify 0-2 year old vocalisations from our wild Samburu acoustic data set and remove them from the sample. Section 3.2.2. Measuring and statistical analysis of the fundamental frequency, mean frequency and frequency range of vocalisations recorded from our wild Samburu elephant database. Section 3.2.3. Shifting of the second formant in the bee rumble to represent those more typical of the white noise rumble to enable us to carry out the playback experiments as described in the remainder of Chapter 3. This includes the production of Figure 3.2. This collaborative research described in detail in Chapter 3 enabled us to publish a joint authorship paper King et al., (2010) in the journal PLoS One. The text, excluding figure legends, tables, references and Appendix, does not exceed 45,000 words. Signed Date i ABSTRACT The conceptual origin of this DPhil thesis was based on one foundation publication by Vollrath and Douglas-Hamilton (2002a) “African bees to control African elephants”. The authors made a unique discovery that African elephants will avoid feeding on acacia trees that host beehives, either empty or occupied by African honey bees. The concept that elephants might hold a long term memory about bees that could be so negative as to evolve avoidance behaviour towards an otherwise favourite food source, was deeply intriguing and warranted further study. Two key research questions are asked in this thesis and are reflected in the title (i) what happens when elephants and honey bees interact and (ii) how can we adapt this behaviour into a potential deterrent system for crop-raiding elephants. Hence, this is really a thesis of two halves blending both disciplines of natural and social sciences. The first three data chapters explore in detail the behavioural response of elephant families to digital playbacks of bee sounds. This technique has been used successfully by other established elephant research teams including acoustic studies on African savannah elephants conducted by scientists with the Amboseli Trust for Elephants and Cornell University studying African forest elephants. Here, I work with an unfenced savannah elephant population studied by Save the Elephants in Samburu and Buffalo Springs National Reserves, northern Kenya. I show that not only do elephants run from the sound of bees but that they emit a unique low frequency alarm call when doing so, which in turn alarms (or warns) others in the area to retreat. Although these multi- layered behavioural discoveries were groundbreaking, I go on to reveal that bee sounds alone will not be enough to deter elephants for long as they do start to habituate to the playback sounds when no negative conditioning from live bees occurs. Turning to the application of this knowledge, I spend three chapters describing in detail the development and evolution of a unique beehive fence designed specifically for use by poor rural farmers who suffer from frequent crop depredations and damage by elephants. I rely on several rapid rural appraisal techniques to evaluate the impact of the beehive fence on efficiency and effectiveness as well as the perception of the farmers and the potential income and livelihood prospects. The adoption success of the beehive fence system in three rural communities leads to a discussion about the wider application of beehive fences on both a regional and global scale. I end with a list of recommendations for the conditions within which I predict the beehive fences will be effective. Foundation Publication Vollrath, F. and Douglas-Hamilton, I. (2002a) African bees to control African elephants. Naturwissenshaften 89: 508-511. iii The Winds II family crossing the Ewaso Ng’iro River, Samburu National Reserve First Year of DPhil Research, 7th May 2007 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I thank the Government of Kenya, Laikipia, Samburu and Isiolo County Councils for permission to conduct this research in Kenya, and Kenya Wildlife Service for supporting what started out as an investigative concept. Special thanks to Moses Litoroh and Patrick Omondi for their encouragement and friendship both in Kenya and during tense CITES conferences around the world. I have been extremely privileged during my research to ‘stand on the shoulders’ of some eminent scientists. Professor Fritz Vollrath and Dr Iain Douglas-Hamilton OBE, whose 2002 research paper describing the deterrent effect of bees on acacia trees triggered off excited discussions and helped me form the research questions for this thesis. Professor Vollrath has guided me through the Oxford DPhil process and yet allowed me the freedom to explore my own ideas and make my own mistakes. Thank you for providing me with the framework for such a successful research project and for giving me the best five years of my life. Without Dr Iain Douglas-Hamilton I may never have had any elephants to study. He has spent his entire life working tirelessly to secure a future for elephants and it has been my pleasure and honour to work within his vision and to absorb some of his passion for elephants. I can’t thank him, and his phenomenal wife and daughters Oria, Saba and Dudu Douglas-Hamilton, enough for taking me under their wings and into the heart of Save the Elephants. Thank you for introducing me to the wonderful elephants and people of Samburu, I hope this research will help to save a few more elephants in the future. Also within Oxford, I am very grateful to my joint supervisor, Dr Anna Lawrence, for her input and advice on the social science aspects of this thesis and for introducing me to a new field of fascinating research theory. At Save the Elephants, I must thank Njoki Kibanya and Wainaina Kimani for adeptly managing our behind-the-scene logistics with endless patience. Festus Ihwagi and Barnard Lewasopir have helped me repeatedly with ArcGIS advice and mapping skills. In Samburu, I am so grateful for the friendship and camp companionship of David Daballen, Chris Leadismo, Gilbert Sabinga, Daniel Lentipo, Jerenimo Lepirei and Shivani Bhalla who all, at one time or another, came to my assistance in the field. Lenbera, Andrew, Michael and Lekomat helped to keep me fed, safe and mostly snake- free. Special thanks to my two field assistants Lucas Lepuiyapui and Wilson Lelukumani with whom I have shared many adventures and challenges, and who both saved me from passing out after being stung badly by a swarm of angry bees. I can now see why elephants run away. During my research I have had the utmost privilege to meet and work with some wonderful farmers and their families. There are too many to list here but special thanks must go to Ephrahim Miner, Felix Mathenge, Joseph Wahome, Mercyfield Wambaruko and the whole Mwiriri Beekeepers Group in Ex- Erok; Peter Ekeri, Charles Lobenyo, Chinja, Angelina Lokunyugo and Mzee John from Chumviyere and Etorro, and Godwin Kilele and Margaret Kiriro from Sagalla. Onesmas Kahindi deserves special thanks for introducing me to the fascinating Turkana communities of Chumviyere and Etorro, where I now feel so at home. Particular thanks must go to Dr Joseph Soltis and Dr Anne Savage at Disney’s Bioacoustics Lab in Disney’s Animal Kingdom, Florida, who collaborated fully with me for the bee alarm rumble work (Chapter 3). Without their skills, experience and generosity with time and equipment this important section of my thesis would not have been completed. Apologies for the elephant-flattened microphone. v I am grateful for my core funding from an ESRC/NERC joint studentship grant, which enabled me to conduct my research at the Animal Behaviour Research Group in the Department of Zoology at Oxford. Thanks to Professor Marian Stamp Dawkins for her encouragement and to Lynne Bradley, Heather Green and Lorraine Hogg for administration support while I was in Kenya. Additional, and vital, funding was provided by Save the Elephants, Disney Worldwide Conservation Fund, Rufford Small Grants Foundation, VSNi, Appropriate Development Consultancy Ltd, Fund for Women Graduates, The Kileva Foundation through Cliff and Jane Evans, The Wingate Foundation and Balliol College. My time in Kenya and Oxford was enhanced by the assistance, friendship, generosity and/or inspiration of so many people but the following people deserve particular thanks: Susannah Rouse, Dr Max Graham, Dr Stephen Chege, Jake Wall, Dr George Wittemyer, Dr Henrik Rasmussen, Alice Leslie, Dr Juliet King, Ian Craig, Richard Moller, Dr Cynthia Moss, Dr Joyce Poole, Dr Suresh Raina, Dr Ian Gordon, Dr Kate Evans, Dr Chris Holland, Dr Seb Shimeld, Pat Awori and the whole BBC crew for such a fascinating time during the filming of The Secret Life of Elephants TV series. My two examiners, Dr Karen McComb and Dr Mark Stanley Price contributed editing and discussion points to the final thesis and their constructive comments were highly appreciated.