ENGENDERING SECURITY: LESSONS FROM POST-CONFLICT CENTRAL AMERICA by Kimberly Carter A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Graduate Department of Political Science, University of Toronto © Copyright by Kimberly Carter 2013. Engendering Security: Lessons from Post-conflict Central America Kimberly Carter Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Department of Political Science University of Toronto 2013 Abstract Analyzing post-conflict contexts from a feminist perspective sheds light on an important, yet overlooked, fact in peacebuilding research: While human rights are formally recognized and codified by public state and international institutions, the actual possibility of enjoying these rights often depends on whether they are respected or violated in private, often intimate, gendered relations. I therefore ask: How might peacebuilding efforts bridge the gap between the promise and practice of women’s rights and basic security in post-conflict contexts? In response, I argue that peacebuilding efforts must foster a feminist vision of positive peace that requires not only the absence of war, but also the elimination of unjust social relations.1 So long as gendered violence is largely excluded from mainstream peacebuilding theories and practices, a robust human rights regime will remain elusive - even in contexts that are otherwise regarded as peacebuilding "success stories." In theory, the protection and promotion of human rights as part of peacebuilding is not very controversial. The challenge, as I illustrate, is in finding ways to make these rights a meaningful reality (i.e. a behavioural practice) in the lives of a post-conflict population. Based on 92 interviews and extensive participant-observation research in El Salvador, Guatemala, and 1 J. Ann Tickner, Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Security, New York: Columbia University Press, 1992, ii Nicaragua, I demonstrate how grassroots projects are well-positioned to: a) address the private relations in which gendered violence often occurs, and b) change the attitudes, beliefs and behaviours that sustain the gendered power relations and gendered roles subordinating women. I focus on three projects developed by Central American citizens to strengthen women’s rights and basic security: Women’s Police Stations, Nuevos Horizontes (New Horizons) a shelter for survivors of intimate partner violence, and the innovative telenovela or "social soap" Sexto Sentido (Sixth Sense). My findings show how these projects both empower women through a combination of resources, agency and achievements, and challenge traditional gendered roles and identities, such as machismo, that normalize violence against women. By challenging patriarchal power distributions and gendered identities/roles from the "bottom-up," my research offers baseline examples of how grassroots initiatives can improve women's security, consequently strengthening the rights-based culture necessary for positive peace. iii Acknowledgments The researching, writing and revising of this dissertation took place in many locations, with the support of many people. First and foremost, I must thank the two groups of people without whom there would be no dissertation: my thesis committee and my research participants. I consider myself very privileged to have worked under the dynamite combination of sharp mind and warm heart that is Professor Jennifer Nedelsky. Generous with her wisdom, her time, and her patience, one could not ask for better guidance than that offered by "Jenny". I am also very grateful to Nancy Bertoldi, whose careful reading of my (several) drafts helped to create a final version that is far better than I could have ever produced without her help. Also, many thanks to David Welch, for his thoughtful comments and enduring support. The second group of people who were essential to this project were the Central American women and men who opened up to me and shared their most personal, often painful, stories - their trust and willingness to participate in my research was invaluable. Keenly aware of this fact, I have done my very best to weave together their many experiences with violence, alongside their feelings about the possibility of change, in a thoughtful and thought-provoking manner. To my friends and colleagues, whose words of encouragement helped me press on to reach the finish line (and whose hours of free babysitting allowed me to type my revisions with two hands): Cheryl Auger, Karlo Basta, Christina Bruno, Pierre Campeau, Elinor Bray-Collins, Beth Jean Evans, Raswinder Gill, Andrew Gross, Erin Hannah, Wendy Hicks, Teresa Kramarz, Alanna Krolikowski, Jamie Levin, Melissa Levin, Andrea Paras, "Marky" Mark Purdon, Kara Santokie, Rebecca Saunders, Lisa Spring, Charmaine Stanley, Debra Thompson, Cliff van der Linden, and last - but certainly not least - my friend of nearly twenty years, Lindsay Wilkins. Throughout this journey, I have been extremely fortunate in the fact that many people opened their homes to me (and, later, also to Victoria). In this vein, I am deeply grateful to Gillian Oxley, and her children, Maxine and Aubrey Lowe, for their never-ending cheerleading from start to finish. While in the field, Lynn Johnson and Lisa McMyn always provided good wine, clean sheets and engaging conversation; I am very pleased that they continue to be close friends now that we have all found ourselves back in Toronto. Also in the field, a special thanks to my Oaxaca/Nicaragua writing partner, Katharine Stevens, who taught me many things about writing - and even more about life - during our memorable time together. In the final two years of writing, I had two angels appear in my life - Michelle Spring and Angela Bodnar - who iv provided material and emotional support when I was most in need and most doubtful about my abilities to finish the degree. Finally, I must acknowledge the person who provided the main source of (lovely) distraction in finishing the dissertation, yet, at the same time, acted as my primary motivation to persevere: my daughter, Victoria. May you travel the world and always be grateful to call Canada your home. I love you to the moon and back. v Table of Contents Acknowledgments .................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents .................................................................................................................... vi List of Figures ........................................................................................................................ viii List of Appendices ................................................................................................................... ix Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 1 Chapter 1: "Saving" Liberal Peacebuilding for All .............................................................. 29 1.1 Peace Studies and Peacebuilding ................................................................................ 31 1.2 Approaches to Peacebuilding ..................................................................................... 35 1.3 A Feminist Conception of Positive Peace as Essential for Peacebuilding ................. 45 1.4 Methodology and Methods ......................................................................................... 59 1.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 66 Chapter 2: Public Promises/Private Violence........................................................................ 67 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 67 2.2 The Public Promise of Protection: Women's Right to Security ................................ 68 2.3 The Private Practice of Violence against Women ...................................................... 72 2.4 Due Diligence .............................................................................................................100 2.5 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................108 Chapter 3: Empowering Women from the "Bottom-up" ....................................................110 3.1 Women’s Police Stations ............................................................................................110 a) Resources .............................................................................................................114 b) Agency .................................................................................................................122 c) Achievements .......................................................................................................129 3.2 Nuevos Horizontes .....................................................................................................139 a) Resources .............................................................................................................141 vi b) Agency ..................................................................................................................155 c) Achievements .......................................................................................................164 3.3 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................173