AFRO-COLOMBIAN HIP-HOP: GLOBALIZATION, POPULAR MUSIC AND ETHNIC IDENTITIES DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Christopher Charles Dennis, B.A., M.A. ***** The Ohio State University 2006 Dissertation Committee: Approved by Dr. Abril Trigo, Advisor Dr. Ileana Rodriguez Dr. Fernando Unzueta Advisor Graduate Program in Spanish and Portuguese ABSTRACT As scholars around the globe debate the shortcomings and virtues of economic and cultural globalization, I approach Afro-Colombian hip-hop as a form of testimony to study what young black Colombians – as representatives of a generation at a global crossroads – reveal about the challenges presented by globalization. Evidence indicates that globalization and neoliberal reform have aggravated socio-political ills through intensified warfare, poverty, income inequalities, massive displacement, and violence, among others. These circumstances, in turn, inform much of the Afro-Colombian testimony channeled through hip-hop. I maintain that the content of Afro-Colombian rap, and the circumstances that inspire it, support those who argue that ethnic-racial minorities in the peripheries of the world do not benefit from economic globalization and its anticipated rising tide of wealth and spread of human rights. The dissent and frustration expressed in this music point to youths who are aware that promises of economic distribution, democracy, tolerance, and cultural respect are not and cannot be for everyone. Globalization has also led to cultural transformations and changing ethnic identities, which are very evident among Afro-Colombian urban youth integrated into processes of economic modernization and cultural modernity. I examine various factors ii that currently interpellate Afro-Colombian ethnic identities constructed through music and its practice. These artists use hip-hop as a tool for establishing alliances with local and international communities, for embarking on professional and cultural activities, and for reworking ethnic identities. I specifically demonstrate how this transnational musical practice has been re-signified within the Colombian scenario to highlight the performers’ ethnic-racial identities and the cultural significance of their localities. These performers are strategically appropriating and combining “foreign” elements together with “local” ones to celebrate their cultures, redefine localities and accentuate their “blackness.” When asking whether this Afro-Colombian hip-hop, with its transcultured forms, leads to an autonomous culture or neocolonial dependence, I argue that it is simply too complex to fit into any sort of categorizations of binary analysis. In the end, we cannot understand Afro-Colombian hip-hop, its ever-changing cultural and musical forms, narrations and discourses, tensions and contradictions, without understanding Afro-Colombian histories and cultures and how they are affected by global processes. iii Dedicated to my mother Sandra Kay Dennis who has always supported me in every endeavor iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS First and foremost, I wish to thank my mother, Sandra Kay Dennis, for the love, enthusiasm and encouragement she has given me during all of my years of schooling. Without her support, my academic endeavors and accomplishments would not have come to fruition. I would like to give a very special thanks to my advisor, Abril Trigo, for his support, sincere interest, and especially for his patience and criticism in editing my work, all of which have made this dissertation possible. I am grateful to him for his professional guidance, and above all, for his friendship over the years. I would like to thank Fernando Unzueta for regularly taking time out of his busy schedule to talk with me and offer direction with regards to my graduate work, dissertation and professional development. I am very thankful to Dorothy Mosby for encouraging me to pursue my research interests in Afro-Colombian studies. Although she left The Ohio State University several years ago, even at a distance she has continued to be supportive. I am grateful to Laura Podalsky for taking the time to read my research and for providing valuable criticism. I would also like to thank her for attending two of my presentations and providing wonderful feedback. v I am thankful to Ileana Rodriguez, Ignacio Corona, and Maureen Ahern for their support and guidance both in and outside of classroom. My discussions with them concerning my research interests have been extremely valuable to my work. I would like to thank Juan de Dios Mosquera of Cimarrón in Colombia for his enthusiasm and support. Our discussions on Afro-Colombian issues greatly enriched and strengthened my knowledge of race and racial relations in the country. I would like to extend a very special thanks to Yahany Valencia of the Afro- Colombian hip-hop group, Choc Quib Town, for all of his contributions to my dissertation. He is responsible for putting me in contact with the many artists, musicians and rappers who form part of this study. Furthermore, our countless discussions on music and racial relations in Colombia were vital to my research. What follows is a list of acquaintances and contacts in Colombia whose contributions and support are greatly appreciated: Alberto Angulo, author of Moros en la costa (1999); Jaime Arocha, Francisco Ortega, and Mara Viveros, faculty members at the Centro de Estudios Sociales (CES) at the Univerisad Nacional in Bogotá; Michael Birenbaum, acquaintance and fellow Fulbright scholar; Giovonni Córdoba, editor of Afro; Jesús Hernández, acquaintance and fellow Fulbright scholar; Walter Hernández acquaintance, hip-hopper, disc jockey and educator; José Proscopio Rios, a.k.a. Popín, acquaintance, hip-hopper and owner of Ayara; Nene U, hip-hopper and member of Ashanty in Cali; Fernando Urrea, professor of sociology at the Universidad del Valle in Cali; the late Manuel Zapata Olivella, Afro-Colombian writer; Gloria Martínez, Miguel Martínez and Alexis Rios of Choc Quib Town; Jhon J of Zona Marginal; and all of the vi members of the following groups: Asilo 38, Zona Marginal, Voodoo SoulJahs, Flaco Flow y Melanina, Ghettos Clan, Carbono, and Artefacto. Lastly, my research was made possible thanks to funding provided by a research grant from the Fulbright Association (2004-2005). From The Ohio State University, I received funding from a Graduate Student International Dissertation Research Travel Grant (2004) from the Office of International Affairs, the Loann Crane Graduate Award for Hispanic Studies (2003), and a Tinker Summer Field Research Travel Grant (2002) from the Center for Latin American Studies. Without this support, my trips to Colombia and my extensive research in the field would not have been possible. vii VITA March 2, 1974 ……………………… Born – Middletown, Ohio 1996 ………………………………… B.A. Spanish, DePauw University 2001 ………………………………... M.A. Latin American Literatures and Cultures, The Ohio State University 1999 – Present ……………………… Graduate Teaching and Research Associate The Ohio State University PUBLICATIONS Research Publication Dennis, Christopher. “Afro-Colombian Hip-Hop: Globalization, Popular Music and Ethnic Identities.” Studies in Latin American Popular Culture 25 (2006): 271-95. FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field: Spanish and Portuguese Studies in: Colonial Latin American Literatures and Cultures Contemporary Latin American Literatures and Cultures Ethnic Studies viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………….. ii Dedication ………………………………………………………………………………. iv Acknowledgments …………………………………………………………………….... v Vita ……………………………………………………………………………………. viii Chapters: 1. Introduction ……………………………………………………………………… 1 1.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………….. 1 1.2 Slavery and Regionalization ………………………………………… 2 1.3 Contemporary Profiles of Afro-Colombian Populations …………... 11 1.4 Contemporary Demographics ……………………………………… 14 1.5 Socio-Economic Indicators ………………………………………… 17 1.6 Afro-Colombian Music ...................................................................... 20 1.7 Chapter Synopses …………………………………………………... 22 2. The Afro-Colombian Racial Construct: From the Colonial Period to the Present ………………..………………………………………………………… 27 2.1 Representations of Black Subjects during the Colonial Period ……. 30 2.2 Francisco José de Caldas and Enlightened Racialism ……………... 41 2.3 Independence and the Invention of Colombia ……………………... 47 2.4 Discrimination in the 20th Century: Between “Whitening” and Invisibility ………………………………………………..…………….. 57 2.5 The (Lack of) Afro-Colombian Voices …………………………….. 60 2.6 Candelario Obeso: the Originator of Black Poetry in Colombia …... 63 2.7 Afro-Colombian Literary Voices of the 20th Century …………….... 66 2.8 The Literary and Cultural Contributions of Manuel Zapata Olivella …………......……………………………………………….….. 69 2.9 El Cimarrón: A Symbol of Afro-Colombian Identity ……………... 72 2.10 The Constitution of 1991: From Mestizaje to Plurietnia …………. 75 2.11 Afro-Colombian Ethnic Identities in a Postmodern Era ………….. 86 2.12 New and Old Forms of Racism …………………………………… 94 ix 3. Globalization and Musical Migrations: An Introduction to Afro-Colombian Hip-Hop ..………………………………….…………………..……………… 100 3.1 Globalization: New Term or New Occurrence? ………………….. 100 3.2 The Merit of a Study on Afro-Colombian Hip-Hop ……………… 105 3.3 Groups of Study …………………………………………………... 111 3.3.1 The Non Afro-Centric Groups .…………………………. 115 3.3.2 The Afro-Centric Groups .………………………………. 116 3.6 The Arrival of Hip-Hop