*Timoroan: One Land, One Nation, One Future 30 August – A Day For All Timoroan Timoroan National Identity in Timor-Leste A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Emanuel António de Araújo Braz School of Social Sciences Victoria University September 2014 Timoroan: National Identity in Timor-Leste Page | 1 Abstract This thesis explores the multidimensionality of contemporary Timoroan as reflection of the narratives of politics and history that engulfed Timor-Leste since the 1500s and that in many respects continues to this day to inform who the Timoroan are and what Timor-Leste is. Timor-Leste is a proud nation and the Timoroan have every right to be proud, there is much to be proud of, but unfortunately this confidence and pride has been chipped away by almost 500 years of occupation, pillage, manipulation, oppression and death. That contemporary literature continues to perpetuate the Timoroan as conflict prone, or poor, or fragile, and underdeveloped shows how history serves the strong and the dominant rather than the less strong and more accepting. Timor-Leste is shaped by its history that has taken over the lives of the Timoroan for half a millennium and distracted the Timoroan from its destiny and purpose still being defined today and into the future. One cannot look at the Timoroan and Timor-Leste today without deconstructing what close to 500 years of forced occupation does to a people and the spiritual, ideological, physical and environmental ecology of an island. This thesis approaches the narratives of the Timoroan and Timor-Leste from a purely Timoroan academic perspective and in this regard this thesis looks at the history of colonialism and invasion and its impacts on the Timoroan from the other side of the fence, that is from the side of the Timoroan, from inside-out. This thesis also (de)constructs the Timoroan from the lived experiences and worldviews expressed by the respondents of this research study about what is like to live in cultural context and in contemporary Timor-Leste society and as part of the Timor-Leste Nation-State into the future. Page | 2 Statement of Originality I, Emanuel António de Araújo Braz, declare that the PhD thesis entitled Timoroan: National Identity in Timor-Leste is no more than 100,000 words in length including quotes and exclusive of tables, figures, appendices, bibliography, references and footnotes. This thesis contains no material that has been submitted previously, in whole or in part, for the award of any other academic degree or diploma. Except where otherwise indicated, this thesis is my own work. Page | 3 Acknowledgements I pay respect and acknowledge the ingenuity and the perseverance of the Timoroan; the innate resilience and willingness to self-preserve and to resist; and for having the courage and foresight to take each opportunity as it came and never be afraid to dream and demand that which is ours. Timoroan exist and Timor-Leste is today a nation-state. Greater achievement could not have been possible without the Timoroan in the first place. I acknowledge and thank all the Timoroan who contributed to this research project in particular the respondents both formal and informal. The Timoroan I met for a coffee and whom I asked How do you know you are Timoroan?; and who kindly and honestly answered Because I Am Timoroan; were equally important to me as the Timoroan I formally interviewed and quoted here. I tapped into the Timoroan collective that is both formal and informal, it is rational and lulik1, it is culturally aware, raw and honest. I thank my family, friends, colleagues who also greatly assisted me in this long journey as respondents, as confidants and as supporters. No one ever told me I could not do a PhD, so I always believed I could and would do it on the Timoroan and about Timor-Leste. I thank my supervisors: Dr Helen Hill for believing in the Timoroan and always providing us with opportunities to engage with academia and for being a repository of knowledge and a driving force for over 30 years of the solidarity and great friendship that to this day exists between the Timoroan and the Ema Australia2; Dr Les Terry for telling me this is my work and it is whatever I want it to be whilst at the same time keeping me within the narrative; this being the right approach with the Timoroan and it is much appreciated; and Dr Russell Wright for his assistance during my PhD candidature process; for pushing me through the line so I was able to continue on to see it through. The PhD contains much about the Timoroan but still too little to be a complete representation. The Timoroan have been Timoroan since a Labarik (Boy) struck an honorous friendship with a Lafaek (Crocodile) and together they grew old and saw the wonders of the world and felt the evils of human character. The Timoroan to this day continue to live off the body of the grandfather Lafaek, Timor-Leste. To the Timoroan, the Children of the Crocodile, Resistir É Vencer!3 1Lulik - Sacred 2 Ema – People 3 Resistir É Vencer! – To Resist Is To Win! Page | 4 Table of Contents Abstract P.2 Student Declaration P.3 Acknowledgements P.4 Table of Contents P.5 List of Tables and Figures P.7 List of Abbreviations P.8 List of Tetum and Non-English Terms P.10 Chapter 1 Introduction P.12 1.1 Research Overview P.15 1.2 Scope P.17 1.3 Thesis Outline P.19 1.4 Research Contribution P.21 Chapter 2 Research Design P.22 2.1 Field Research P.23 2.2 Methodology P.23 2.3 Analysis of Qualitative Data P.27 2.4 Participants Sampling P.30 2.5 In-depth Interviews and Focus Group Discussions P.36 2.6 Analysis of In-depth Interviews and Focus Group Discussions P.37 Part One – Contextualising Rai Doben (Beloved Land) Timor-Leste P.38 Chapter 3 Becoming-Nation Timor-Leste P.39 3.1 Imagined Timor-Leste P.43 3.2 (Post)Colonial Timor-Leste P.52 3.3 Constructed Timor-Leste P.56 3.4 Modern Nation-State Timor-Leste P.59 3.5 Ethnic Timor-Leste P.63 Further Remarks P.72 Chapter 4 Becoming-Nation: Timor-Leste, History, and War P.73 4.1 Pre – 1512 Timor P.75 4.2 1512 – 1975 Portuguese Colonialism P.82 4.2.1 1942-45 WWII and Three Years of Occupation P.99 and Leaflets 4.3 1974-1975 Political Parties and Independence P.101 4.3.1 ‘Civil War’between the Timoroan P.104 4.4 1975 – 1999 Timoroan Resistance to Indonesian Occupation P.109 4.4.1 Greater Indonesia P.110 4.4.2 The Resistance Movement: Armed, Clandestine, P.111 Diplomatic 4.4.3 Suharto’s Fall and the 1999 Popular Referendum P.114 4.5 1999-2002 The “Democratisation”of Timor Lorosa’e by the UN P.117 Page | 5 Further Remarks P.119 Part Two – Advancing the Understanding of Timoroan P.120 Chapter 5 Learning to Be and (National) Identity P.121 5.1 Learning to Be Ema in Cultural Context in Timor P.122 5.3 Socialisation and Learning to be Timoroan P.125 5.4 Self and National Identity P.147 5.4 National Identity and Maubere(-ismo) P.149 5.5 National Identity and Gender in Timor-Leste P.153 Further Remarks P.160 Chapter 6 Timoroan National Identity P.162 6.1 ‘Hau Timoroan’ P.163 6.2 To ‘Feel’ Hatene Nia A’an Ka Senti nia A’an nudar Timoroan P.169 6.3 Kultura Kesi Ita / Culture Binds Us All P.178 6.4 Lisan (Culture) and the Uma Lulik P.190 6.5 National Symbols and National Identity P.197 6.6 Religion, Lisan (Culture) and National Identity P.202 6.7 Languages and National Identity P.207 6.7.1 Local Languages P.211 6.7.2 Tetum P.218 6.7.3 Portuguese P.229 6.7.4 English and Bahasa Indonesia P.240 Further Remarks P.242 Chapter 7 In Closing P.244 Bibliography P.249 Appendices P.262 Appendix 1: Interview guide (English/Tetum) P.263 Appendix 2: Human Research Ethics Information Sheet (Tetum) (English) P.267 Appendix 3: Human Research Ethics Consent Form (Tetum) (English) P.270 Page | 6 List of Tables and List of Figures List of Tables Table 1: Matrix of the respondents. P.33-34 Table 2: National Symbols mentioned by the respondents in order of salience. P.200 Table 3: Language ability (Speak, Read and Write) of literacy of Timoroan 5 years and P.210 over, Census 2010, Timor-Leste. Table 4: Timoroan Adult Literacy Rate (15 years and over), Census 2010, Timor-Leste. P.210 List of Figures Figure 1: Thesis Structure. P.19 Figure 2: Respondents per age composition. P.32 Figure 3: In-depth Interviews (Male/Female). P.35 Figure 4: Focus Group Discussions (Male/Female). P.35 Figure 5: Total Respondents (Male/Female). P.36 Figure 6: Key units of identification of themes for analysis. P.37 Figure 7: (ABove) Regional Map of Timor-Leste. P.40 Figure 8: (Right) Territorial Map of Timor-Leste. P.40 Figure 9: The multi-dimensionality of the Timor-Leste Nation-State. P.42 Figure 10: Pleistocene movement and colonisations across land and sea in Southeast P.76 Asia. Figure 11: Ethno-linguistic map of Timor. P.77 Figure 12: Hierarchical stratification of traditional Timorese society. P.80 Figure 13: Socio-political division of the Island of Timor found By the Portuguese on P.81 their arrival in 1512.