The Military Significance of Venus in Late Republican and Augustan Rome Catherine Julia Smallcombe Bachelor of Arts (Honours) A thesis submitted for the degree of Master of Philosophy at The University of Queensland in 2017 School of Historical and Philosophical Inquiry i Abstract The Roman goddess Venus is conventionally associated with love, sex, and beauty. However, these were only some of her areas of influence. In reality, her role within the Roman religious system was far more complex and multi-faceted, and was not confined to these associations. Venus, in the Roman mind, bore associations with warfare and military success that were just as prominent. On one hand, this is hardly surprising due to her divine status, especially as one of the Dii Consentes. All Roman deities could be thought of as ‘militaristic’ in some sense. However, even the Romans themselves made a sharp distinction between her role as the goddess of love, and her martial qualities. This indicates both her importance as a martial deity, and the surprising nature of her multi-faceted role in Roman religion. In addition to analysing the development and political advantages of Venus’ martial attributes in Roman religion, this thesis will also offer a survey of the major temples dedicated to Venus in her capacity as a military goddess during the Republican and Augustan periods. An investigation of these temples is a particularly important step towards understanding her influence over military success. Whilst some of the temples have been investigated previously in scholarship, a comprehensive analysis of these sites as evidence for Venus’ role as a martial goddess is still lacking in many cases. Furthermore, such an investigation is essential in charting the significance of her martial attributes in the turbulent political environment of the Late Republic. Venus’ ability to bestow martial favour became the subject of intense political competition in the Late Republic. In particular, the ‘great men’ of this period all recognised the power of her patronage and fought for control over the goddess’ martial attributes. Sulla, Pompey, and Caesar all engaged in a dialogue of competition, which saw each man seeking to outdo his predecessor’s claim to the goddess’ favour. During this competition, building projects became the ideal means through which individuals could advertise a personal connection with the goddess on a large public scale. Pompey’s famous theatre complex was constructed for this purpose, and explicitly evoked Venus’ martial attributes as the ‘bringer of victory’. The Civil War between Caesar and Pompey, however, became an important turning-point in this competition, with Caesar emerging victorious as the unquestionable recipient of Venus’ ii patronage. The Julian claim to descent from the goddess played an important role in Caesar’s eventual control over her martial attributes. His well-advertised lineage therefore surpassed any competing claims to her favour. Caesar’s construction of the Forum Iulium and the Temple of Venus Genetrix was designed to broadcast this ancestral connection on an unprecedented public scale, but Venus’ martial attributes were not ignored in this complex. Ultimately, the Forum Iulium and its Temple of Venus Genetrix functioned as a permanent reminder of Caesar’s power and position in the state as the result of the goddess’ patronage. The advertisement of Venus’ patronage was continued under Augustus, especially through his construction of the Forum Augustum. The clear visual connection between the Temple of Mars Ultor in Augustus’ forum, and the Temple of Venus Genetrix in the Forum Iulium deliberately evoked Venus’ martial qualities. This connection reinforced her role as consort of Mars, and also underlined the familial connection between Augustus and Julius Caesar. As such, the Forum Augustum functioned as a space through which Augustus could utilise Venus’ military and political associations, in order to boost his public image. It is undoubtedly true that Venus’ military attributes were utilised for political purposes within this period, especially by figures such as Sulla, Pompey, and Julius Caesar. Venus’ military characteristics were important for those in prominent political positions within the later Republic. Both literary and archaeological evidence attests to the goddess’ perceived influence over military fortune. Maintaining her favour was therefore required, in order to ensure the safety of the state through success in battle. iii Declaration by the author This thesis is composed of my original work, and contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference has been made in the text. I have clearly stated the contribution by others to jointly-authored works that I have included in my thesis. I have clearly stated the contribution of others to my thesis as a whole, including statistical assistance, survey design, data analysis, significant technical procedures, professional editorial advice, and any other original research work used or reported in my thesis. The content of my thesis is the result of work I have carried out since the commencement of my research higher degree candidature and does not include a substantial part of work that has been submitted to qualify for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution. I have clearly stated which parts of my thesis, if any, have been submitted to qualify for another award. I acknowledge that an electronic copy of my thesis must be lodged with the University Library and, subject to the policy and procedures of The University of Queensland, the thesis be made available for research and study in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968 unless a period of embargo has been approved by the Dean of the Graduate School. I acknowledge that copyright of all material contained in my thesis resides with the copyright holder(s) of that material. Where appropriate I have obtained copyright permission from the copyright holder to reproduce material in this thesis. iv Publications during candidature No Publications. Publications included in this thesis No publications included. Contributions by others to the thesis No contributions by others. Statement of parts of the thesis submitted to qualify for the award of another degree None. v Acknowledgements First, I would like to express my gratitude towards my supervisor, Associate Professor Tom Stevenson. His valuable advice, assistance, patience, and encouragement over many years have been integral to the completion of this thesis, and I cannot thank him enough. Many thanks to Dr. Janette McWilliam, Dr. Shushma Malik, and Dr. Amelia Brown for their incredibly helpful advice regarding the content and argument of this thesis. I owe a great deal to my parents, Margaret and Dennis, and my brother Mike, for their unfailing help and guidance. Many thanks also to the wonderful friends who have helped me in countless ways throughout this process, in particular Nastassja and Alice – I could not have completed this thesis without your constant reassurance and support. To Snowy the dog, who didn’t see the completion of this project, but always provided much needed support and affection over so many years. Finally, this thesis is dedicated to my grandmother, Rita See, and to the memory of my grandfather, James See. Their love and encouragement always motivated me to undertake my studies in Classics, and I wouldn’t be where I am today without them. vi Keywords venus, military, caesar, pompey, augustus, sulla, republic, landscape, forum, temple Australian and New Zealand Standard Research Classifications (ANZSRC) ANZSRC code: 210306 Classical Greek and Roman History, 80% ANZSRC code: 210105 Archaeology of Europe, the Mediterranean and the Levant, 20% Fields of Research (FoR) Classification FoR code: 2103 Historical Studies, 80% FoR code: 2101, Archaeology, 20% vii Table of Contents Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1 I. Ancient Sources ................................................................................................................... 2 II. Currents of Scholarship........................................................................................................ 4 III. The Argument of this Thesis ............................................................................................ 7 Chapter 1 – The ‘Roman’ Venus: Development from the Middle Republic to Sulla ........... 11 I. The First Roman Temple to Venus: The Temple of Venus Obsequens ............................ 17 II. The Introduction of a ‘Foreign’ Cult: The Temple of Venus Erycina ............................... 21 III. Patronage and Conflict: Venus as a Military Goddess under Sulla ............................... 27 Chapter 2 – Changing Politics: The Significance of Venus in the Career of Pompey .......... 33 I. Victory and Glory: The Military Career of Pompey ‘the Great’ ....................................... 36 II. Pompey’s Theatre and Temple of Venus Victrix: Piety or Convenience? ........................ 46 III. Advantageous Attributes: The Political Potential of Pompey’s Connection with Venus Victrix........................................................................................................................................ 58 Chapter 3 – The Power of Ancestry: Caesar, Venus, and the Forum Iulium ....................... 61 I. Venus and the Julii: