INFLUENCE OF AFRICAN TRADITIONAL RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY IN UNDERSTANDING CHRONIC ILLNESSES AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE: A CASE OF CHIWESHE COMMUNAL LANDS IN ZIMBABWE by Vincent Mabvurira THESIS Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in SOCIAL WORK in the FACULTY OF HUMANITIES (School of Social Sciences) at the UNIVERSITY OF LIMPOPO PROMOTER: PROFESSOR J.C MAKHUBELE 2016 Declaration I declare that this thesis, submitted to the University of Limpopo, for the degree, Doctor of Philosophy in Social Work; Influence of African Traditional Religion and Spirituality in Understanding Chronic Illnesses and its Implications for Social Work Practice: A Case of Chiweshe Communal Lands in Zimbabwe, has not been previously submitted by me for a degree at this or any other university; that this is my work in design and in execution, and that all material contained herein has been duly acknowledged. ____________________________ __________________ MABVURIRA VINCENT DATE i Dedication To the memory of my parents Obert Chivhaku and Beauty Mhundwa “I am an African. I owe my being to the hills and the valleys, the mountains and the glades, the rivers, the deserts, the trees, the flowers, the sea and the ever-changing seasons that define the face of my land………I am an African. I am born of the peoples of the continent of Africa….” Thabo Mbeki ii Acknowledgements It is African and very African to always acknowledge and appreciate the assistance one gets from others. This section is meant for the following people who have made this thesis a reality: My supervisor, Professor Jabulani Calvin Makhubele. I have seen hunhu in you; I have seen what it means to be African through you. You have been more than a supervisor to me. I thank God, the Creator of the universe, for all the guidance and moral support you gave me during the challenging times of my studies. My ever loving daughter, Makanaka Beauty, who is my source of inspiration. You have always inspired me since the day you entered this world, Alluta Continua Mamoyo. My son, Bethel Ngonidzashe, who was born during the course of my studies. This is for you. University of Limpopo Financial Aid Office, for providing me with a bursary which has enabled me to continue with my studies amid financial challenges. I really appreciate your support. My people, all the members of Chivhaku clan (the living, the living dead and those yet to be born), I appreciate your moral support during this pilgrimage. My respondents who offered me insightful information that helped me shape this study. The late Zimbabwean musician Marshal Munhumumwe, whose song Uchandifunga, invigorated me whenever I got weary during the course of my studies. My Creator, God, Mwari, the King of Kings, the Lord of Lords, Lord Jesus Christ, surely You create paths in the wilderness. You have been my pillar of strength even before I knew you. iii Finally, many thanks go to all those who, though unacknowledged in this thesis, have, in one way or the other, assisted me during the course of my studies. iv Abstract In many human service professions, religion and spirituality are increasingly recognised as significant sources of clients’ strengths that can aid clients’ well-being. This Afrocentric study sought to unveil the influence of African traditional religion and spirituality in understanding chronic illnesses in Chiweshe communal lands, Zimbabwe. The aim was achieved through the following objectives: to establish the assumed causes of chronic illnesses in Chiweshe communal lands, to explore how African traditional religion and spirituality promote management of chronic illnesses, to find out the impact of African spirituality on the resilience of people against chronic illnesses, and to establish how African belief systems affect community perceptions and care of people with chronic illnesses. This study was informed by three theories, namely; the Afrocentric theory, strengths perspective and resilience theory. The study adopted the Afrocentric methodology which is a qualitative approach to studying African phenomenon cognisant of African values. In line with this methodology which respects the canon of ujamaa among people of African descent, the study population was comprised of people living with chronic conditions, their families, the elderly, traditional leaders, village health workers and traditional medical practitioners and community home- based care workers from Chiweshe communal lands in Mazowe District of Zimbabwe. Purposive sampling was used to select participants for the study. Data were gathered from eleven people living with chronic illnesses and six families whose members have chronic illnesses and eighteen people (elderly, traditional leaders, traditional medical practitioners and village health workers and community home-based care workers). Data were gathered through one-on-one interviews (for people with chronic illness), family interviews (for families of people with chronic illnesses) and focus group discussions for the other participants. Thematic content analysis was used to analyse data. v African traditional religion was found to be central in understanding chronic illnesses among the study participants. The study participants reported that chronic illnesses are caused by avenging spirits, ancestors calling a person, witchcraft, failure to honour one’s ancestors, globalisation and modernisation. A number of strategies were reported to be used to manage chronic illnesses, namely; use herbs, incisions (nyora), exorcism (kupumha), healing charms (ndumwa), rituals, casting away (kurasira) and the use of divining bones. A number of factors in Shona traditional religion were found to promote resilience in chronic illness. These included, among others, the omnipresence of ancestors, having performed rituals such as bringing back ceremony (kurova guva), community rituals and the ability of traditional medical practitioners to tap into the spirit world and resolve the negative circumstances surrounding their clients’ lives. In times of need, care was, in most cases, found to be provided by family members, friends, other community members and home-based care workers. The concept of ubuntu was reported to have influenced the whole community when it comes to caring for the sick. Close friends (sahwiras), totem-based relatives, extended family, and traditional healers played an important role during people’s illnesses. Traditional healing methods were also reported to be cheap and linking people to their ancestral spirits. However, ATR was associated with witchcraft and was reported to interfere with allopathic medicine. Members of ATR suffer discrimination from service providers at both government and private hospitals and clinics. It can thus be safely concluded that African traditional religion and spirituality have significance in understanding chronic illnesses among the Shona people of Chiweshe communal lands. They influence the Shona people’s understanding of causes and management of diseases as well as their resilience against chronic illnesses. Social workers vi working with people of African descent must appreciate the central role of religion in the lives of African people. Social work practice should, in African communities, be spiritually sensitive. Social work practitioners should understand traditional beliefs and value systems found in African traditional religion. Strengths-based practice, which recognises African traditional belief systems as a source of resilience, should be recognised. It is also important for social workers to recognise African taboos, traditional social safety nets, communitarianism, totemism and African relationships which are broader and more encompassing as compared to the western individualistic ones. vii Keywords: African traditional religion, African spirituality, Afrocentric social work, chronic illness, Spiritually sensitive social work, Chiweshe communal lands, Shona, Afrocentricity/ Afrocentrism, Strengths perspective, resilience theory, Ubuntu, Traditional medicine, Shona traditional religion, Transpersonal social work, Strengths-based social work. viii Abbreviations and acronyms AIC African Initiated Churches AIDS Acquired Immuno-Deficiency Syndrome ART Anti-retroviral Therapy CDL Chronic Diseases of Lifestyle C&HBC Community and Home Based Care CSO Civil Society Organisations CSWZ Council of Social Workers (Zimbabwe) HAART Highly Active Anti-Retroviral Therapy HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus HBC Home Based Care IASSW International Association of Schools of Social Work IFSW International Federation of Social Workers IKS Indigenous Knowledge Systems IWK Indigenous Ways of Knowing JMC Johanne Masowe Chishanu NASW National Association of Social Workers (Zimbabwe) PLWHA People Living With HIV and AIDS UNAIDS Joint United Nations Programme of HIV/AIDS UNESCO United Nations, Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation. USA United States of America WHO World Health Organization TK Traditional Knowledge TM Traditional Medicine TMP Traditional Medical Practitioner ix TMPC Traditional Medical Practitioners’ Council VHW Village Health Worker ZINATHA Zimbabwe National Traditional Healers Association x Glossary of Shona words Chiremba - Doctor Chirwere cheshuga - Diabetes Chisahwira - Friendship / friendship based joking Hakata - Divining bones Kupumha - Exorcise / exorcism Kurasira - Casting away Kurova guva - Bringing back home ceremony Mudzimu (plural vadzimu) - Ancestral/ family spirit (s) Munyama - Misfortune