Landscape-based conservation approaches in the developing world: The case for Managed Elephant Ranges in Sri Lanka Sanjay Kalpage A thesis in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Institute of Environmental Studies School of Arts & Social Sciences October 2013 THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES Thesis/Dissertation Sheet Surname or Family name: Kalpage First name: Sanjay Other name/s: Rajnish Perera Abbreviation for degree as given in the University calendar: PhD School: Arts & Social Sciences Faculty: Institute of Environmental Studies Title: Landscape-based conservation approaches in the developing world: the case for Managed Elephant Ranges in Sri Lanka Abstract 350 words maximum: (PLEASE TYPE) While establishing protected areas (PAs) has helped conserve the Earth’s diminishing biodiversity, the ‘traditional’ view of conservation underlying this approach—perceiving nature as static, and considering people apart from nature—has compromised PA effectiveness. Moreover, competing land uses often hamper new PA establishment. Consequently, landscape-based approaches could better achieve conservation objectives while catering to human needs. Unfortunately, these approaches have often proved difficult to implement, especially in developing countries. This thesis explores how a landscape-based approach could address Sri Lanka’s most pressing conservation issue: human-elephant conflict resulting in the deaths of about 75 people and 200 elephants annually, and causing substantial property damage. Government policy makers are under tremendous pressure to resolve this conflict—as the endangered Asian elephant is a national icon—but their efforts have largely proved ineffective. Some conservation biologists have proposed a unique conflict-mitigation approach based on research showing that traditional ‘shifting agriculture’ creates optimal elephant habitat, and that differences in timing of land-use by farmers and elephants enables resource-sharing with minimal conflict (irrigated agriculture has been the conflict’s main driver). They recommend establishing ‘Managed Elephant Ranges’ (MERs) outside, but mostly adjacent to, PAs. My thesis focuses on implementing this approach within a particular landscape in southeast Sri Lanka. Given the problem’s complexity, I adopted an interdisciplinary approach—incorporating GIS-based spatial analysis, stakeholder analysis and economic modelling—to demarcate potential MERs, identify stakeholder needs (e.g. of farmers, government officials, NGOs, business-people), and estimate sources of economic value within the landscape (e.g. from nature tourism, carbon credits). Combining my results with lessons from other countries, I have developed a sustainable, economically viable MER implementation plan that meets key stakeholder needs. My approach constitutes a blueprint for implementing MERs in Sri Lanka’s human-elephant conflict areas, while my overall methodology has wider applications in areas of human-wildlife conflict worldwide. Ultimately, my research provides practical applications of natural capital valuation and sustainable natural resource use in a developing country context. Declaration relating to disposition of project thesis/dissertation I hereby grant to the University of New South Wales or its agents the right to archive and to make available my thesis or dissertation in whole or in part in the University libraries in all forms of media, now or here after known, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. I retain all property rights, such as patent rights. I also retain the right to use in future works (such as articles or books) all or part of this thesis or dissertation. I also authorise University Microfilms to use the 350 word abstract of my thesis in Dissertation Abstracts International (this is applicable to doctoral theses only). …………………………………………………………… ……………………………………..……………… ……….……………………...…….… Signature Witness Date The University recognises that there may be exceptional circumstances requiring restrictions on copying or conditions on use. Requests for restriction for a period of up to 2 years must be made in writing. Requests for a longer period of restriction may be considered in exceptional circumstances and require the approval of the Dean of Graduate Research. FOR OFFICE USE ONLY Date of completion of requirements for Award: i ORIGINALITY STATEMENT I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and to the best of my knowledge it contains no materials previously published or written by another person, or substantial proportions of material which have been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma at UNSW or any other educational institution, except where due acknowledgement is made in the thesis. Any contribution made to the research by others, with whom I have worked at UNSW or elsewhere, is explicitly acknowledged in the thesis. I also declare that the intellectual content of this thesis is the product of my own work, except to the extent that assistance from others in the project's design and conception or in style, presentation and linguistic expression is acknowledged. Signed ……………………………………………..............…………......... Date ……………………………………………..............…………............. COPYRIGHT STATEMENT I hereby grant the University of New South Wales or its agents the right to archive and to make available my thesis or dissertation in whole or part in the University libraries in all forms of media, now or here after known, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. I retain all proprietary rights, such as patent rights. I also retain the right to use in future works (such as articles or books) all or part of this thesis or dissertation. I also authorise University Microfilms to use the 350 word abstract of my thesis in Dissertation Abstract International (this is applicable to doctoral theses only). I have either used no substantial portions of copyright material in my thesis or I have obtained permission to use copyright material; where permission has not been granted I have applied/will apply for a partial restriction of the digital copy of my thesis or dissertation. Signed ……………………………………………..............…………......... Date ……………………………………………..............…………............. AUTHENTICITY STATEMENT I certify that the Library deposit digital copy is a direct equivalent of the final officially approved version of my thesis. No emendation of content has occurred and if there are any minor variations in formatting, they are the result of the conversion to digital format. Signed ……………………………………………..............…………......... Date ……………………………………………..............…………............. ii This page has intentionally been left blank iii ABSTRACT While establishing protected areas (PAs) has helped conserve the Earth’s diminishing biodiversity, the ‘traditional’ view of conservation underlying this approach— perceiving nature as static, and considering people apart from nature—has compromised PA effectiveness. Moreover, competing land uses often hamper new PA establishment. Consequently, landscape-based approaches could better achieve conservation objectives while catering to human needs. Unfortunately, these approaches have often proved difficult to implement, especially in developing countries. This thesis explores how a landscape-based approach could address Sri Lanka’s most pressing conservation issue: human-elephant conflict resulting in the deaths of about 75 people and 200 elephants annually, and causing substantial property damage. Government policy makers are under tremendous pressure to resolve this conflict—as the endangered Asian elephant is a national icon—but their efforts have largely proved ineffective. Some conservation biologists have proposed a unique conflict-mitigation approach based on research showing that traditional ‘shifting agriculture’ creates optimal elephant habitat, and that differences in timing of land-use by farmers and elephants enables resource-sharing with minimal conflict (irrigated agriculture has been the conflict’s main driver). They recommend establishing ‘Managed Elephant Ranges’ (MERs) outside, but mostly adjacent to, PAs. My thesis focuses on implementing this approach within a particular landscape in southeast Sri Lanka. Given the problem’s complexity, I adopted an interdisciplinary approach—incorporating GIS-based spatial analysis, stakeholder analysis and economic modelling—to demarcate potential MERs, identify stakeholder needs (e.g. of farmers, government officials, NGOs, business-people), and estimate sources of economic value within the landscape (e.g. from nature tourism, carbon credits). Combining my results with lessons from other countries, I have developed a sustainable, economically viable MER implementation plan that meets key stakeholder needs. My approach constitutes a blueprint for implementing MERs in Sri Lanka’s human-elephant conflict areas, while my overall methodology has wider applications in areas of human-wildlife conflict worldwide. Ultimately, my research provides practical applications of natural capital valuation and sustainable natural resource use in a developing country context. iv This page has intentionally been left blank v TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements ix List of publications and presentations arising from the writing of thesis xi Abbreviations and symbols xiii List of Figures xv List of Tables xix Chapter 1: Problem definition and research overview 1 1.1 The global biodiversity crisis and the importance of protected areas 1 1.2 Issues with relying