University of New Orleans ScholarWorks@UNO University of New Orleans Theses and Dissertations Dissertations and Theses Fall 12-18-2014 Crescent City Nightingales: Gender, Race, Class and the Professionalization of Nursing for Women in New Orleans, Louisiana, 1881-1950 Paula A. Fortier University of New Orleans, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.uno.edu/td Part of the Urban Studies and Planning Commons Recommended Citation Fortier, Paula A., "Crescent City Nightingales: Gender, Race, Class and the Professionalization of Nursing for Women in New Orleans, Louisiana, 1881-1950" (2014). University of New Orleans Theses and Dissertations. 1916. https://scholarworks.uno.edu/td/1916 This Dissertation is protected by copyright and/or related rights. It has been brought to you by ScholarWorks@UNO with permission from the rights-holder(s). You are free to use this Dissertation in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. For other uses you need to obtain permission from the rights-holder(s) directly, unless additional rights are indicated by a Creative Commons license in the record and/ or on the work itself. This Dissertation has been accepted for inclusion in University of New Orleans Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks@UNO. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Crescent City Nightingales: Gender, Race, Class and the Professionalization of Nursing for Women in New Orleans, Louisiana, 1881-1950 A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the University of New Orleans in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Urban Studies Urban History by Paula Anne Fortier B.A. University of New Orleans, 2004 M.A. University of New Orleans, 2010 M.S. University of New Orleans, 2014 December, 2014 Copyright 2014, Paula Anne Fortier ii Dedication This dissertation is dedicated to Amelia Greenwald, Eunice Broussard, Katherine Dent, Mae B. Kaufman, Frances “Fannie” R. Lindsey, and all the other brave nurses from New Orleans, Louisiana, who served in the Army and Navy Nurse Corps during World War I. iii Acknowledgements Throughout the process of researching and writing this dissertation, I have received exceptional guidance and assistance from many people who deserve my most heartfelt gratitude. They have willingly donated their precious time in order to help me transform the initial idea into a piece of respectable scholarship. For that, they deserve to be formally recognized for their professional and personal contributions. My dissertation committee ranks at the top of the list. Dr. Robert L. Dupont, the chair and major professor, supervised the evolution of this dissertation. He provided valuable and constructive ideas during the planning and development stages that helped me focus on the historical context and significance of the research. Dr. Connie Z. Atkinson reviewed this dissertation with the experience of a professional editor. She suggested changes to clarify the information for the readership and corrected the grammar. Dr. Miki Pfeffer, who I consider a mentor, utilized her expertise on the history of women in New Orleans, Louisiana to guide me in defining the scope and purpose of this dissertation. I cannot thank my committee enough for their sound advice and leadership. They monitored my progress to the best of their abilities and kept me on schedule to completion. Next, I want to extend my appreciation to the archivists of the many document repositories that provided primary source materials for this dissertation. On the national level, the staffs of the National Archives in College Park, Maryland, and the Naval Historical Center in Washington, DC, helped me decipher their finding aids to locate federal documents related to this research. On the municipal level, Michael Campbell at Special Collections and Archives, Will W. Alexander Library, Dillard University; Irene Wainwright at Louisiana Division Special iv Collections, New Orleans Public Library; and Dr. Florence Jumonville at Louisiana Special Collections Department, Earl K. Long Library, University of New Orleans, provided a wealth of local information. As the former archivist of Touro Infirmary, I thank all of my fellow archivists for their time and assistance in navigating their unique collections. The past and present staff of Touro Infirmary Archives deserve a special thanks. Catherine C. Kahn, the Archivist Emeritus, bestowed upon me the care of the archives and a thorough knowledge of Jewish history in New Orleans. The former assistant archivist, Linda S. Epstein, served as an informal reader, editor, and researcher. Her expert skills in Jewish genealogy uncovered valuable information about several women highlighted in this dissertation. Volunteers Harriet Stern, Jessica Travis, and Sarah Norman provided moral support and camaraderie. I would also like to thank the staff of Touro Infirmary. Christine Albert, the Vice President of Marketing, and Shon Baker, the Director of the Touro Foundation, served as my supervisors. From the start of my employment, they supported me through the process and appreciated how much the research related to the history of the hospital. I thank them immensely for their patience and understanding. Lista Hank, a registered nurse at the Ambulatory Treatment Center, also happened to be the current president of the Charity Hospital School of Nursing Alumni Association. She put me in contact with past alumnae and their descendants who donated primary source materials from their personal collections. I cannot thank them enough for their precious contributions. I want to thank a few of my former classmates from the History and Urban Studies departments at the University of New Orleans. Lynn Cowles, a graduate of the master’s program v in history in 2012 and currently enrolled as a doctoral student of history at the University of Southern Mississippi, and Laurel “Lauri” Dorrance, a graduate of the master’s program in public history in 2011, provided unconditional friendship. We talked about writing history, socialized, and generally enjoyed the companionship. Renee Bourgogne, a fellow doctoral candidate of urban studies (urban history), and I started the program together in the fall of 2010 and have pushed each other through the process of coursework, comprehensive exams, researching, and writing our dissertations. I could not have completed the program without her constant friendship and moral support. Last, but not in the very least, I want to thank my dear husband, Michael D. Fortier, Jr. He served as a research assistant, reader, and reviewer. His unwavering support and love motivated me to see this dissertation through to completion. I cannot thank him enough for being there when I needed him the most. Thank you, everyone, and “Bravo Zulu” for a job well done! vi Table of Contents List of Figures ..................................................................................................................viii List of Abbreviations and Nomenclature .............................................................................x Abstract ...............................................................................................................................xi Introduction ..........................................................................................................................1 Chapter 1 ............................................................................................................................18 Chapter 2 ............................................................................................................................38 Chapter 3 ............................................................................................................................78 Chapter 4 ..........................................................................................................................112 Chapter 5 ..........................................................................................................................148 Chapter 6 ..........................................................................................................................174 Chapter 7 ..........................................................................................................................198 Chapter 8 ..........................................................................................................................226 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................262 Bibliography ....................................................................................................................269 Vita ...................................................................................................................................284 vii List of Figures 1.1. Florence Nightingale ...................................................................................................23 1.2. Clara Barton ................................................................................................................26 2.1. L. E. Rabouin Memorial School .................................................................................45 2.2. Sister Stanislaus ..........................................................................................................50 2.3. Early graduates of the Charity Hospital School of