Anderson, Valerie E.R. (2011) The Eurasian problem in nineteenth century India. PhD Thesis, SOAS (School of Oriental and African Studies) http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/13525 Copyright © and Moral Rights for this thesis are retained by the author and/or other copyright owners. A copy can be downloaded for personal non‐commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the copyright holder/s. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. When referring to this thesis, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given e.g. AUTHOR (year of submission) "Full thesis title", name of the School or Department, PhD Thesis, pagination. The Eurasian Problem In Nineteenth Century India Valerie E.R. Anderson Department of History School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) A thesis submitted to the University of London in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in History 2011 1 DECLARATION I undertake that all material presented for examination is my own work and has not been written for me, in whole or in part, by any other person(s). I also undertake that any quotation or paraphrase from the published or unpublished work of another person has been duly acknowledged in the work that I present for examination. Valerie E.R. Anderson The copyright of this thesis rests with the author and no quotation from it or information derived from it may be published without the prior written consent of the author. 2 ABSTRACT The Eurasian ‗problem‘ in nineteenth century India was a question of their national identity. People of mixed European and Indian ancestry, were seen by the British as ‗other‘ than European but treated by them as ‗other‘ than Indian. First legal proscriptions and later social mores acted to maintain a barrier between the British and Eurasians but the separation was never complete. The British administration needed Eurasian labour and European men continued to seek Eurasian wives, pulling Eurasians into the sphere of British influence. At the same time, eager to define and preserve the Britishness of its presence in India, the government and European ‗society‘ pushed Eurasians away. Encouraged by the prospect of work to maintain a strong affiliation with British culture moulded through continued interaction and education, Christian and largely Anglophone Eurasians emerged at the end of the century ‗othered‘ again. In the minds of many Indians, the Eurasians, working primarily as government servants, were firmly associated with subjugation and colonial rule. In colonial India poor or Indianised Eurasians were somewhat of a problem for the British who sought to legitimise their rule with an illusion of European superiority. In late colonial and independent India Anglo-Indians were sometimes perceived as another kind of problem; an unwelcome hang-over from the British Raj. Thus, both their Indian and their European heritage were problematic. A small population with neither political power nor wealth, Eurasians were stuck in a liminal zone between the coloniser and the colonised. As such they were caught up in and buffeted by colonial hegemony, nationalist demands, and the need to put bread or chapattis on their tables. This thesis explores the everyday realities of marriage and family, education and employment, and shows how Eurasian agency in choosing their own lifestyles and affiliations, was gradually eroded by the colonial state. 3 CONTENTS Title page 1 Declaration 2 Abstract 3 Contents 4 Tables and figures 7 Acknowledgements 8 Abbreviations and glossary 9 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 10 - 34 Historical Context 10 Thesis aims 14 Historiography 16 CHAPTER 2: EURASIAN ‘OTHERING’ 35 - 60 Laws, Directives and Usages 35 Discussion of Motives 54 Communal response 57 Problems of interpretation of Motives 59 CHAPTER 3: HIDDEN AGENDAS 61 - 87 Introduction 61 Charles Cornwallis and settlers 63 Richard Wellesley and the Irish Catholics 71 Dundas and Highland Scots 77 Discussion and conclusions 84 CHAPTER 4: POPULATION STATISTICS 88 - 97 Introduction 88 Censuses and other estimates 88 Growth 94 Results 97 CHAPTER 5: EUROPEANS AND MISCEGENATION 98 - 118 Introduction 98 Soldiers and other ranks 102 Civilians and officers 105 European women 106 Eurasian and native women 110 Ecclesiastical returns 112 Comparisons 113 Conclusions 114 4 CHAPTER 6: LAW AND MARRIAGE 119 - 154 Introduction 119 Legal Marriages 124 Legislation, 124 Lack of clergy 128 National status 129 The Church 129 The Established Church 130 The Catholic Church 132 Scottish Understanding 133 Indian Customs and The Lex Loci 135 Islamic rites 136 Hindu rites 138 Other Considerations 141 Slavery? 141 Class & social mores 142 Peer group & social pressure 144 Financial constraints 144 Effects on The Eurasian Community 145 The family 145 Orphanages & children 146 Obstacles to marriage 149 The exceptions 150 Conclusions 151 CHAPTER 7: EMPLOYABILITY 155 – 183 Introduction 155 Eurasian Agency 156 Moulding Useful Citizens 163 Employment In British India 169 Poverty, paupers and vagrants 175 Conclusions 182 CHAPTER 8: WOMEN’S WORK 184 - 202 Introduction 184 Prejudice 184 Marriage 186 Alternatives 188 Seamstress 189 Domestic Service 189 Teachers 190 Nursing, Midwifery & Medicine 193 Independent Agency? 199 Prostitution & Destitution 200 Conclusions 202 5 CHAPTER 9: EURASIANS AND THE MILITARY 203 - 233 Introduction 203 Armies of Native States 204 The East India Company‘s Armies 208 Musicians 208 Farriers 211 Madras Sergeant Majors 212 Crises 213 Indian Subordinate Medical Department 213 The Irregular Corps. 222 Volunteer Militias 223 Crown Armies 224 Discourses on Military Service 225 Conclusions 232 CHAPTER 10: EURASIANS AND THE RAILWAY 234 - 269 Introduction 234 East Indian Railway Company 236 Methodology 237 European and Eurasian employment 239 conditions Occupations 247 Railway colonies & communities 256 Numerical strength 257 Howrah 258 Allahabad 259 Jumalpore 261 Summary of findings 265 Discussion 266 CHAPTER 11: CONCLUSIONS 270 - 276 BIBLIOGRAPHY 277 - 299 6 TABLES Table 1: Summary of Proscriptions Seen as Inimical to Eurasian Interests, 1773 - 1813 Table 2: Census of India; Eurasians Enumerated by Province, State & Agency Table 3: Estimating Eurasian population growth – all India Table 4: British Soldiers in India – Royal and Company Armies Table 5: (a) Marriage rates and age-general male population & soldiers, (b) Marriage rates for age ranges-general male population & soldiers; (c) Age demographics-general male population & soldiers Table 6: European Population of India; 1881 Table 7: The Shortfall of European Women in India 1881 Table 8: Occupations of Madras Eurasians in 1898 Table 9: Occupations of Anglo-Indians in British India, 1931 Table 10: Provincial Civil Service Table 11: Establishment for Female Hospital for Women and Children Table 12: Military Musicians Table 13: Grades and salaries; Indian Subordinate Medical Department, 1908 Table 14: Number of Men and Monthly Salary (Rs) by Occupation and Race Category Table 15: Clerks Table 16: Drivers Table 17: Fitters Table 18: Apprentices FIGURES Fig. 1: European and Eurasian Employees by Year of Recruitment Fig. 2: Monthly Salary by Race Classification Fig. 3: Proportion; European to Eurasian Employees Fig. 4: East Indian Railway‘s Eurasian Communities by Location 7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I owe a huge debt of gratitude to Professor Peter Robb whose careful supervision has preserved my sanity and brought this thesis to completion. The South Asia History group at SOAS provided another layer of support and inspiration. The friendly and informal encouragement of Drs Shabnum Tejani and Talat Ahmed is particularly appreciated. The Archivists and Librarians of the National Archives of India, New Delhi, of the Oriental and India Office Collection, British Library, Senate House Library and of SOAS Library offered expert advice both on identifying sources and on negotiating their digital catalogues and other electronic resources. At the start of my research, Major J.B. Harrison’s suggestions of possible thematic approaches, the types of sources that might prove fruitful and his crash course on how to do fieldwork were especially helpful. Whilst in Delhi, I was assisted in so many ways by people who went out of their way to help a stranger. When you are thousands of miles from home, alone with a broken laptop and a contiguous welt of mosquito bites, a little sympathy goes a long way. Whether they were fellow researchers or staff at the Archives, auto drivers and hotel staff, or fellow guests, they made my stay all the more memorable by their kindness. Somewhere out there is an unnamed, faceless hoard of transcribers and scanners whose efforts to compile massive digital archives have brought to my laptop, now fully restored, unpublished archival material, rare books, photographs and theses from every corner of the Earth, most of it completely free of charge. Two open access digital archives that are particularly fabulous must be mentioned, Google Books and Archive.org, to which so many universities and archives have contributed material. Thanks to them my research has not been constrained by opening hours or distance. Perhaps my greatest debt is to my family who have been the very embodiment of patience and tolerance. I have spent